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Elite

OSPREY PUBLISHING

The US H o m e Front 1941-45

A l e j a n d r o de Q u e s a d a • Illustrated by Stephen W a l s h

CONTENTS 3

INTRODUCTION

• T h e impact o f W o r l d War II: public m o o d - saving and recycling - rationing - clothing - e m p l o y m e n t - sports - internment

9

ENEMY ACTION & HOMEGROWN FASCISM • U-boats - Japanese shelling, b o m b i n g and balloons ALEJANDRO DE QUESADA, a F l o r i d a - b a s e d military

• T h e German-American B u n d

history w r i t e r , is a n experienced researcher and c o l l e c t o r of m i l i t a r i a , p h o t o s and documents and runs an archive as a secondary business, with a strong Hispanic-American content.

13

HOME DEFENSE & PRE-MILITARY TRAINING • Office o f Civil Defense - Reserve Officers Training Corps Civilian Military Training Camps • State Defense Forces

He has written 12 books and o v e r 5 0 a r t i c l e s , including Elite 1 3 7 : The Revolution

Mexican 1910-20.

19

PATRIOTIC SERVICE ORGANIZATIONS • United Service Organizations - Daughters o f the Defenders o f

H e is a l e a d i n g a u t h o r i t y on

the R e p u b l i c - A m e r i c a n W o m e n ' s Voluntary Services - Bundles

Spanish-American subjects.

for A m e r i c a - National Security W o m e n ' s Corps - National W o m e n ' s C o u n c i l o f the Navy League

HUMANITARIAN ORGANIZATIONS

25

• A m e r i c a n R e d Cross - Public Health Service - A m e r i c a n W o m e n ' s Hospitals Reserve Corps - W o m e n ' s A m b u l a n c e 8c Defense C o r p s o f A m e r i c a - Junior American Nurse Ine A m e r i c a n Field Service

MARITIME SERVICES

31

• Army Transport Service - Coast & G e o d e t i c Survey STEPHEN WALSH studied

M e r c h a n t Marine - US Coast Guard Auxiliary

a r t a t t h e N o r t h East W a l e s Institute. Since then he h a s w o r k e d m a i n l y for t h e A m e r i c a n historical b o a r d -

AERONAUTICAL SERVICES

45

• Air Transport C o m m a n d - British Flying Training Schools -

g a m e m a r k e t , fulfilling

Civil Air Patrol - Relief Wings Ine - W o m e n ' s Auxiliary Ferrying

a lifelong i n t e r e s t in historical

S q u a d r o n - W o m e n ' s Airforce Service Pilots

s u b j e c t s . His A m e r i c a n w o r k s include the best-selling Settlers

of Catan.

He has

also p r o d u c e d m a n y p i e c e s of a r t w o r k inspired by J R R T o l k i e n . H e is m a r r i e d w i t h

THE WORKFORCE

51

• Civilian Conservation C o r p s - "Rosie the Riveter": W o m e n O r d n a n c e Workers - W o m e n ' s Land Army

t w o c h i l d r e n a n d lives in M a c c l e s f i e l d .

CHILDREN AT WAR

54

• Boy & Girl Scouts - Victory C o r p s

SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY

57

PLATE COMMENTARIES

59

INDEX

64

Elite •

161

The US H o m e Front 1941-45

A l e j a n d r o de Q u e s a d a • Illustrated by Stephen W a l s h Consultant

editor

Martin W i n d r o w

Acknowledgments

First published in Great Britain in 2 0 0 8 b y Osprey Publishing, M i d l a n d House, West Way, Botley, O x f o r d 0 X 2 OPH, U K 4 4 3 Park A v e n u e S o u t h , N e w York, NY 10016, U S A E-mail: [email protected]

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I would like to thank the following individuals and institutions who have contributed to making this book possible: Jack and Maggie Grothe, Tony Petruso, Marc Kohlbaum, Alex Solera, Mark Kasal, Martin Windrow, AdeQ Historical Archives, Jefferson Barracks, The American Red Cross, The American Field Service, Civil Air Patrol, United States Coast Guard Auxiliary, National Archives, United States Public Health Service, Pinellas County Historical Commission, Walt Disney Productions, United Services Organizations (USO), National Geodetic Survey, The Boy Scouts of America, The Girl Scouts of America, National Association of Civilian Conservation Corps Alumni, and The Company of Military Historians.

ISBN: 978 1 84603 208 0

Photographic

Editor: Martin W i n d r o w Page layout b y Ken Vail G r a p h i c Design, C a m b r i d g e , U K

Unless otherwise indicated, all images are from the collections of AdeQ Historical Archives Inc.

Typeset in Helvetica Neue a n d ITC N e w Baskerville Index b y Glyn Sutcliffe Originated by PPS Grasmere, Leeds, U K

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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

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T I T L E P A G E A t y p i c a l p a t r i o t i c d i s p l a y in a s t o r e w i n d o w . T h e s a l e of

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THE US HOME FRONT 1941-45

INTRODUCTION

T

* h e rapid fall o f France to the G e r m a n Blitzkrieg invasion o f M a y - J u n e 1940 s h o o k b u t d i d n o t d e s t r o y the s t r o n g isolationist, e v e n pacifist s e n t i m e n t a m o n g the A m e r i c a n p u b l i c . Suddenly, Great Britain s t o o d a l o n e against Nazi G e r m a n y , a n d l o o k e d toward the U n i t e d States f o r s u p p o r t - w h i c h was given, in the f o r m o f vitally n e e d e d supplies s h i p p e d o n a "buy n o w , pay later" basis. As early as 1939 patriotic a n d service o r g a n i z a t i o n s h a d b e g u n to spring u p across the U n i t e d States in anticipation o f the war s p r e a d i n g , a n d these efforts r e d o u b l e d as the r e p o r t s o f the Battle o f Britain a n d the b o m b i n g o f British cities w e r e r e p o r t e d by A m e r i c a n radio correspondents into American h o m e s . President Franklin D. R o o s e v e l t was criticized by m a n y as a w a r - m o n g e r f o r his patient efforts to carry the p e o p l e with h i m in t u r n i n g the U n i t e d States i n t o the "great arsenal o f d e m o c r a c y " d u r i n g 1940 a n d 1941; b u t at the s t u n n i n g news o f the J a p a n e s e attack o n Pearl H a r b o r o n Sunday, D e c e m b e r 7, 1941 patriotic f e e l i n g s o a r e d in A m e r i c a n society, a n d the U n i t e d States b e c a m e fully c o m m i t t e d to t h e war against the dictatorships. A m e r i c a n s ' willingness to carry o u t blackout and civil defense drills; to save everyday materials for recycling; to work l o n g e r hours, while having fewer c o n s u m e r g o o d s to buy with their salaries all these d e m o n s t r a t e d the n a t i o n ' s strong support for the war. T h e r e were more fundamental changes than these habits o f thrift: W o r l d War II b r o u g h t a b o u t a political, psychological and e c o n o m i c shift to the right in the United States. T h e preparations f o r waging a w o r l d war b r o u g h t n e w life into d e p r e s s e d a n d d o r m a n t c o m m u n i t i e s across the country. T h e o u t b r e a k o f W o r l d War II saw e n o r m o u s n u m b e r s o f n e w military airfields a n d o t h e r bases established in many states. T h e Southeast r e g i o n b e c a m e the main focal p o i n t f o r training fighter a n d b o m b e r aircrews, a n d the n e e d f o r m o r e airfields f o r c e d the military to c o n v e r t m a n y sleepy c o u n t y a i r p o r t s i n t o f u n c t i o n i n g military facilities.

W o r l d W a r I v e t e r a n s of t h e A m e r i c a n Legion and t h e Canadian Legion are reunited in St P e t e r s b u r g , Florida, for a p a t r i o t i c f u n d r a i s e r . (Pinellas County Historical Commission)

For instance, at the b e g i n n i n g o f 1940 there were just eight military installations in the state o f Florida; by 1943 there were 172. T h e federal g o v e r n m e n t e n c o u r a g e d Americans to conserve and recycle all materials that c o u l d b e used for wartime p r o d u c t i o n . It turned o u t that lots o f everyday h o u s e h o l d trash had value: kitchen fats, o l d metal shovels, even empty metal lipstick tubes. T h e federal g o v e r n m e n t also c o m p e l l e d Americans to cut back o n foodstuffs and c o n s u m e r g o o d s , and ration cards b e c a m e necessary to purchase such staples as c o f f e e , sugar, and meat. T h e rationing o f gasoline and vehicle tires was particularly shocking in a nation o f h u g e distances and a tradition o f f r e e d o m to travel. Virtually all kinds o f manufactured metal g o o d s b e c a m e hard to replace. T h e s e wartime shortages caused a m o u n t i n g frustation, since they c a m e at a time o f high levels o f e m p l o y m e n t : for the first time in years p e o p l e had m o n e y to spend, but there were few g o o d s available for purchase. W h e n the war finally came to a close in 1945 and industries returned to c o n s u m e r p r o d u c t i o n , Americans w o u l d g o o n a buying spree o f u n p r e c e d e n t e d proportions. T h e necessities o f war even i n f l u e n c e d American fashion. In the spring o f 1942 the War P r o d u c t i o n Board b e c a m e the nation's premier clothing consultant by dictating styles for civilian apparel that would c o n s e r v e cloth for the war effort. For e x a m p l e , menswear rid itself o f vests, e l b o w patches o n jackets, and cuffs o n pants. W o m e n ' s clothing was also r e d e s i g n e d to use fewer materials, and skirts b e c a m e shorter and narrower. De rigueur for patriotic w o m e n were efficient, two-piece bathing suits, which created the biggest public stir since Mrs Amelia B l o o m e r ; Mr Marcus o f the famous Nieman-Marcus department store called these swimsuits "patriotic c h i c . "

The n a t i o n at w o r k T h e war provided an excuse to abolish segments o f the New Deal. Conservative politicians had f o u g h t against these agencies for years, but now that President Roosevelt was focusing o n winning a war instead o f r e f o r m i n g society, they c o u l d slash f u n d i n g f o r the Civilian Conservation Corps ( C C C ) , Works Projects Administration ( W P A ) , and National Youth Administration (NYA). Congress had always i n t e n d e d these p r o g r a m s to h e l p those A m e r i c a n s w h o s u f f e r e d j o b discrimination, even during favorable e c o n o m i c c o n d i t i o n s , so their demise was especially hard o n African Americans, w o m e n , and the elderly. With the elimination o f many New Deal p r o g r a m s , poverty increased for many Americans even at a time o f rising wages. Still, for a great part o f the working p o p u l a t i o n the wartime e c o n o m y b r o u g h t about full e m p l o y m e n t and, in d o i n g so, achieved what New Deal programs had b e e n unable to d o . In 1940, 8 million Americans were u n e m p l o y e d ; during that year, however, this surplus almost disappeared. T h e high wages offered by many rapidly e x p a n d i n g industries s u c k e d in workers f r o m o t h e r parts o f the c o u n t r y , particularly f r o m p o o r rural areas; this, in c o m b i n a t i o n with military enlistments, left these sectors suffering f r o m serious shortages o f labor, with dire c o n s e q u e n c e s for many farming families - even t h o u g h the g o v e r n m e n t was purchasing e n o r m o u s quantities o f s o m e foodstuffs. A n o t h e r hardship was the c h r o n i c lack o f h o u s i n g for the new workers, which meant that many m e n w h o f o u n d work in war p r o d u c t i o n factories planted in formerly small c o m m u n i t i e s in o t h e r states were unable to bring their families with them. Wives and families Despite these m o v e m e n t s o f p o p u l a t i o n , s o m e industries were still short o f vital hands, and this led to m o r e and m o r e w o m e n taking u p factory j o b s that had o n c e b e e n reserved for m e n by the labor unions. "Rosie the Riveter" b e c a m e a p o p u l a r A m e r i c a n i c o n , and by 1945 w o m e n

J u n e 1 9 4 2 : a housewife gives a p o u n d w e i g h t of s a l v a g e d , s i e v e d cooking fat back to her butcher for r e c y c l i n g . ( P h o t o A n n R o s e n e r ; Library of C o n g r e s s P r i n t s & P h o t o g r a p h s Division)

m a d e u p 36 p e r c e n t o f the nation's total workforce. T h e new freedoms and temptations o f wartime led to many family breakdowns, illegitimate births, hasty marriages and divorces. A m o r e positive c o n s e q u e n c e is less often r e m e m b e r e d : w h e n m e n answered the military draft o r traveled to where the work was to b e f o u n d , many left b e h i n d wives w h o had to fend for themselves. T h e s e w o m e n often p o o l e d their efforts in raising their families, f o r m i n g into g r o u p s and sharing such chores as c o o k i n g , h o u s e w o r k , a n d laundry. Many w h o h a d y o u n g c h i l d r e n shared apartments and houses in o r d e r to save time, money, utilities and f o o d . If b o t h w o r k e d , they w o r k e d different shifts so they c o u l d take turns babysitting. For many, this sharing and c o o p e r a t i o n b o r n out o f the d e m a n d s p l a c e d o n the w o m e n o f W o r l d War II created life-long b o n d s among them. Life o n the h o m e front b r o u g h t special challenges as those left b e h i n d by the disruption o f families had to c o p e with rationing a n d shortages; m a n y everyday necessities were scarce o r simply unobtainable. Families with children were constantly worried about their little o n e s falling sick; if they were in work, they might be better able than ever b e f o r e to pay d o c t o r bills, but illnesses that were readily treatable during n o r m a l times often b e c a m e serious because o f a g e n e r a l shortage o f pharmaceuticals a n d o t h e r m e d i c a l supplies diverted for military use - particularly antibiotics such as penicillin. But support for the soldiers overseas never lagged. S o m e p e o p l e g o t rich f r o m the wartime b o o m , but the great majority simply kept working

patiently, all o f them making their contribution to the eventual victory. In the process, they c h a n g e d the A m e r i c a n workplace forever. T h e war t h r e a t e n e d the h a r m o n y a n d m o r a l e o f A m e r i c a n s , a n d g o v e r n m e n t authorities h a d to figure o u t what they c o u l d d o a b o u t it. During the early days o f the war baseball hardly s e e m e d a priority, b u t it was j u d g e d to b e i m p o r t a n t f o r p u b l i c m o r a l e by P r e s i d e n t Roosevelt. O n January 15, 1942 the President issued the " G r e e n L i g h t " letter a n d i n f o r m e d Baseball C o m m i s s i o n e r K e n n e s a w Mountain Landis that the 1942 m a j o r l e a g u e baseball season s h o u l d p r o c e e d . (However, injuries a n d military service d e c i m a t e d the rosters o f many m a j o r league teams.) W h e n the ballplayers w e n t o f f to fight, many w o m e n e n t e r e d baseball w h e n the All A m e r i c a n Girls Professional Baseball L e a g u e ( A A G P B L ) was f o r m e d . T h e w o m e n kept baseball alive at a time w h e n p u b l i c interest w o u l d o t h e r w i s e have w a n e d b e c a u s e o f the war. Eventually, training c a m p s f o r the league were established in Havana, C u b a , a n d Fort L a u d e r d a l e , Florida. T h e A A G P B L c e a s e d to exist after 1954, b u t in r e c e n t years there has b e e n s o m e increase in the p u b l i c ' s awareness o f w o m e n ' s role in baseball b e c a u s e o f the 1992 film A League of Their Own. A p e r m a n e n t e x h i b i t h i g h l i g h t i n g the r o l e o f w o m e n in baseball n o w stands in the Baseball Hall o f F a m e .

A J a p a n e s e - A m e r i c a n U S Navy v e t e r a n of W o r l d W a r I d e f i a n t l y w e a r s his old u n i f o r m a n d A m e r i c a n Legion cap as he r e p o r t s t o f e d e r a l officials for relocation and internment in t h e a f t e r m a t h of P e a r l Harbor. M a n y Nisei

families

lost e v e r y t h i n g d u r i n g t h e i r

The i n t e r n m e n t of t h e

Nisei

T h e saddest aspect o f life in the U n i t e d States was the i n t e r n m e n t o f Japanese-Americans - a harsh measure w h i c h few o t h e r A m e r i c a n s challenged in the a t m o s p h e r e o f paranoia immediately following Pearl

internment; family businesses collapsed, and they were forced t o sell up t h e i r p r o p e r t i e s a t short notice for w h a t e v e r they could get. (National Archives)

Harbor. In February 1942 the US g o v e r n m e n t f o r c e d the relocation o f all Japanese-Americans f r o m the West Coast, a r e g i o n that Roosevelt a n d o t h e r political and military leaders c o n s i d e r e d vulnerable. T h e g o v e r n m e n t established ten i n t e r n m e n t camps in Arkansas, Arizona, California, C o l o r a d o , I d a h o , Utah, and W y o m i n g , which held a total o f 100,000 persons o f Japanese ancestry, many o f w h o m were United States citizens. After his reelection in 1944, Roosevelt c a n c e l e d the evacuation o r d e r and the g o v e r n m e n t closed the camps, but m u c h o f the h u m a n d a m a g e was irreversible. T h e g r o w t h of e x e c u t i v e

power

During the war there were changes in the c o m p o s i t i o n o f the federal bureaucracy. As the federal g o v e r n m e n t c o n t i n u e d to cut funding for social programs, many idealists in Roosevelt's "brains trust" b e c a m e disillusioned a n d left their posts. Business executives with g o o d managerial skills, but little interest in social r e f o r m , quickly filled this political v a c u u m in FDR's administration: the priorities n o w had to be p r o d u c t i o n and organization for the war effort. T h e magazine Business Week r e p o r t e d cheerfully: " T h e war has placed a p r e m i u m o n business talents rather than o n 'brain-trusters' and theoreticians. Businessmen are m o v i n g u p in the New Deal Administration and are replacing the New Dealers as they g o . " F r o m 1940 to 1945, the n u m b e r o f civilian e m p l o y e e s working for the federal g o v e r n m e n t rose f r o m 1 million to nearly 4 million. T h e war also accelerated the growth o f executive power. At war's e n d , the President and his advisors, m o r e than Congress, s e e m e d to drive the n a t i o n ' s d o m e s t i c a n d f o r e i g n a g e n d a . F u r t h e r m o r e , the S u p r e m e C o u r t refused to hear cases that challenged this increase in executive authority.

W i t h a minute n u m b e r of individual exceptions, t h e only w a y Wehrmacht

s e r v i c e m e n got

onto US soil w a s as prisoners of w a r shipped back to c a m p s in A m e r i c a - like this class photographed during an English lesson at C a m p Blanding, Florida. M o s t P O W s w e r e decently t r e a t e d , though US government inquiries did identify a n u m b e r of c a s e s of serious a b u s e . (National Archives)

ENEMY ACTION & HOMEGROWN FASCISM

A Japanese miniature submarine, c a p t u r e d in H a w a i i in t h e a f t e r m a t h of P e a r l Harbor, is s e e n a s p a r t of a t r a v e l i n g

Because o f the United States' geographical isolation, separated by the width o f the Atlantic and Pacific O c e a n s f r o m the battlefronts, s o m e thought that the nation was safe; however, the war did reach its shores. In January 1942, G e r m a n submarines arrived o f f the Atlantic Coast; n o serious consideration had b e e n given to the p r o t e c t i o n o f coastal shipping, which i n c l u d e d the regular passage o f oil tankers f r o m the Gulf coast northwards. By night the U-boat c o m m a n d e r s c o u l d see their targets outlined against the u n d i m m e d lights o f the seashore towns, and by May they had already sunk 180 vessels. ( T h e y called these m o n t h s "the s e c o n d happy time," since it recalled their massacre o f British shipping in the western Atlantic following the G e r m a n capture o f the French Atlantic ports in s u m m e r 1940.) S o m e o f the U-boat engagements offshore c o u l d b e seen right f r o m the beaches. M e m b e r s o f the Coast Guard Auxiliary r e s p o n d e d to the sinking vessels, rescuing those w h o were f o r c e d to a b a n d o n ship, but many seamen d r o w n e d o r were badly b u r n e d . In addition, G e r m a n submarines (U-202 and U-584) offloaded two teams o f saboteurs and explosives o n the b e a c h e s o f Amagansett, L o n g Island, and Ponte Vedra, Florida. Even the West Coast had its share o f e n e m y incursions, although the only serious operation was the Japanese invasion o f the Aleutian Islands off the coast o f Alaska. T h e carrier air raids and landings o n the Aleutians took place in early J u n e 1942, in an attempt to split US Navy forces during the Battle o f Midway; the Japanese garrisons presented only a low-priority threat, however, and were allowed to remain until April-May 1943, when Attu was retaken in hard fighting and Kiska was a b a n d o n e d by the Japanese. Enemy activity against the mainland was m o r e alarming than dangerous, though it inevitably tied d o w n s o m e US resources in precautionary response. T h e Imperial Japanese Navy submarine 1-17 shelled Ellwood oil refinery at Geleta o n the Californian coast o n February 23, 1942. A radio station o n Estevan Point, Vancouver Island, Canada, was fired o n by the Japanese submarine 1-26 o n J u n e 20, 1942,

display s e n t a r o u n d t h e c o u n t r y a s a m e a n s of raising m o n e y for W a r B o n d s .

and the next day the 1-25 shelled Fort Stevens, O r e g o n . In September p h o s p h o r u s b o m b s w e r e d r o p p e d o n Mt Emily, ten miles northeast o f B r o o k i n g s , O r e g o n , to start forest fires; the aircraft responsible was a Yokosuka E14Y1 " G l e n " reconnaissance seaplane piloted by Lt N u b u o Fujita, w h o had b e e n catapulted f r o m the d e c k o f the 1-25. P h o s p h o r u s b o m b i n g s were repeated o n the southern coast o f O r e g o n a few weeks later. Balloon

US government law enforcement a n d military p e r s o n n e l e x a m i n i n g o n e of t h e t h o u s a n d s of J a p a n e s e balloon b o m b s s e n t drifting a c r o s s t h e Pacific. T h i s o n e - like m o s t of t h o s e r e c o v e r e d - c a m e d o w n in o p e n c o u n t r y ; t h e d a m a g e t h e y did w a s negligible. (National Archives)

bombs

Between N o v e m b e r 1944 and April 1945, J a p a n l a u n c h e d o v e r 9,000 i n c e n d i a r y b a l l o o n s toward the A m e r i c a n mainland. C a r r i e d by the Pacific Jetstream, these b a l l o o n s were to sail over the Pacific O c e a n a n d l a n d in N o r t h A m e r i c a , w h e r e the Japanese h o p e d they w o u l d start forest fires a n d wreak devastation. A b o u t 300 were r e p o r t e d as r e a c h i n g N o r t h A m e r i c a , but little d a m a g e was c a u s e d . Six p e o p l e - five c h i l d r e n and a w o m a n , Elsie Mitchell - b e c a m e the only deaths d u e to e n e m y action to o c c u r in m a i n l a n d A m e r i c a d u r i n g W o r l d War II w h e n a b a l l o o n e x p l o d e d while o n e o f the c h i l d r e n was trying to r e c o v e r it f r o m a tree near Bly, O r e g o n . A n o t h e r e x p l o d e d in O m a h a , Nebraska, with little effect. Recently released R C M P a n d Canadian military reports indicate that fire b a l l o o n s g o t as far i n l a n d as the rural area n e a r Ituna, Saskatchewan. In all the Japanese fire b a l l o o n s were f o u n d in the states o f Alaska, W a s h i n g t o n , O r e g o n , California, A r i z o n a , I d a h o , M o n t a n a , Utah, W y o m i n g , C o l o r a d o , Texas, Kansas, Nebraska, South Dakota, N o r t h Dakota, M i c h i g a n , a n d Iowa, as well as in M e x i c o and C a n a d a . T h e last k n o w n discovery o f a viable b a l l o o n in North A m e r i c a was in 1955 - its payload still lethal after 10 years o f c o r r o s i o n . A n o n - l e t h a l b a l l o o n b o m b was d i s c o v e r e d in Alaska as late as 1992. The G e r m a n - A m e r i c a n Bund N o t all e n e m i e s were o f f s h o r e , however; s o m e were h o m e g r o w n . Various c o m m u n i s t , fascist, a n d o t h e r potentially subversive organizations existed in the U n i t e d States prior to America's entry into the war. T h e s e i n c l u d e d organizations such as the American NationalSocialist Party, Christian Front, T h e Ultra-American, Nationalist Party, Friends o f N e w Germany, T h e Gray Shirts, German-American Bund, A m e r i c a First C o m m i t t e e , A n g l o - S a x o n F e d e r a t i o n o f A m e r i c a , N a t i o n a l W o r k e r s L e a g u e , A m e r i c a n Patriots, Crusaders for A m e r i c a n i s m , Paul Revere Sentinels, a n d Ku Klux Klan. Known collectively as "fifth columnists" in the j a r g o n o f the 1930s (the r e f e r e n c e dated f r o m the Spanish Civil W a r ) , these organizations sought to u n d e r m i n e US neutrality by giving tacit o r overt support to the Axis. O f these, the G e r m a n - A m e r i c a n Bund attracted the most attention f r o m the Federal Bureau o f Investigation (FBI).

In May 1933 R u d o l f Hess, Deputy Fuhrer o f the NSDAP ( G e r m a n Nazi party), authorized the f o r m a t i o n o f an A m e r i c a n Nazi party to b e known as the "Friends o f New G e r m a n y ; " with assistance f r o m the German consul in New York City, the organization c a m e into existence u n d e r the leadership o f Heinz S p a n k n o b e l . T h e organization e n g a g e d in pro-Nazi activities which i n c l u d e d the storming o f a G e r m a n language newspaper, the New Yorker Staats-Zeitung, to d e m a n d that m o r e articles sympathetic to the Nazi cause b e printed. Eventually S p a n k n o b e l was ousted and d e p o r t e d as a "foreign agent." T h e Friends o f New Germany were openly supported by Hitler's g o v e r n m e n t until, in 1935, Nazi officials realized that the organization was d o i n g m o r e h a r m than g o o d . Hess recalled the leaders to G e r m a n y and the g r o u p d i s b a n d e d in D e c e m b e r 1935. In its place, many f o r m e r m e m b e r s o f the "Friends" f o r m e d a new organization in March 1936 in Buffalo, New York; this was called the Amerikadeutscher Volksbund o r German-American L e a g u e . Fritz K u h n , a f o r m e r veteran o f the Kaiser's army during W o r l d War I, b e c a m e the organization's Bundesleiter, u n d e r his leadership the o r g a n i z a t i o n b e c a m e united and its m e m b e r s h i p grew. A quarter o f the League's m e m b e r s h i p were o f G e r m a n nationality, but the majority were first- and second-generation German immigrants. T h e German-American Bund m i m i c k e d the Nazi organization with their version o f a u n i f o r m e d Hitler Youth, to educate its m e m b e r s in G e r m a n culture language, history, and literature - as well as indoctrinating them with Nazi ideology. In addition, the League formed an Ordnungsdienst ( O D ) that b e c a m e its militant arm; O D m e m b e r s w o r e uniforms based o n those o f the early Brownshirts ( S A ) . Rallies were s o o n b e i n g held regularly; the Bund created recreational camps such as camps Nordland (NewJersey), Siegfried (New Y o r k ) , and H i n d e n b u r g ( W i s c o n s i n ) ; and G e r m a n beerhalls in C h i c a g o and Milwaukee were frequent venues for local League meetings. Anti-Semitic attacks by Bundists increased, and the German Foreign Ministry c o m m e n t e d that the Bund was n o different from the earlier Friends o f New Germany. In 1936 a delegation o f Bundists led by Kuhn traveled to Berlin for the S u m m e r Olympics, and Kuhn and his followers were invited for a meeting and p h o t o opportunity with A d o l f Hitler at the Reichs Chancellery. While it was n o t the intention o f the G e r m a n Fuhrer, Kuhn exploited every opportunity to use the p h o t o g r a p h s as e v i d e n c e o f an endorsement o f his position as Bundesfuhrer o f the United States; consequently, the United States authorities began to believe there was

During a m e e t i n g of t h e Congressional C o m m i t t e e o n U n - A m e r i c a n Activities, C o n g r e s s m a n M a r t i n D i e s is photographed with a former m e m b e r of t h e G e r m a n - A m e r i c a n Bund w e a r i n g t h e u n i f o r m of t h e movement's (See P l a t e A.)

Frauenschaft.

AMERICA CALLING

a significant relationship between the Third Reich and the German-American Bund. In 1937 the FBI investigated allegations that 200,000 Bundists were ready to take up arms against the US government. Although they f o u n d n o evidence for this fantastic claim, in 1938 Martin Dies o f the H o u s e UnAmerican Activities Committee investigated the organization. H e claimed - wildly - that the Bund had 480,000 members; in fact, at its peak in 1938, it had only about 8,500 members and an additional 5,000 or so sympathizers.

T h e Federal G o v e r n m e n t ' s attention o n the Bund was n o t c o n s i d e r e d a p r o b l e m by G e r m a n g o v e r n m e n t officials in the United States. T h e G e r m a n ambassador, Hans H e i n r i c h Dieckhoff, believed that the League w o u l d never succeed because many GermanAmericans living in the United States were as i n d i f f e r e n t to politics as their A m e r i c a n c o u n t e r p a r t s . W h i l e the Bund was b e i n g investigated as a p u p p e t organization serving the ends o f A d o l f Hitler, in fact the Third Reich gave only the most limited financial or even verbal support to the m o v e m e n t , though CONSULT YOUR NEAREST DEFENSE COUNCIL there were s o m e unofficial contacts. In order to appease the United States, o n March 1, 1938 the German government firmly declared that n o G e r m a n citizen c o u l d be a (Library of C o n g r e s s Prints & m e m b e r o f the Bund and that Nazi e m b l e m s were n o t to be e m p l o y e d P h o t o g r a p h s Division.) by t h organization. Kuhn requested a meeting in Berlin with an aide

Take your place in

CIVILIAN DEFENSE e

f r o m the Reichs Chancellery and appealed for this decision to be reversed, but was told that the a n n o u n c e m e n t was final. T h e G e r m a n - A m e r i c a n L e a g u e h e l d their largest rally ever in New York's M a d i s o n Square G a r d e n in February 1939. A c r o w d o f 22,000 a t t e n d e d , a n d a d e t a c h m e n t o f 3,000 O D m e n p r o v i d e d security for the rally a n d f o r Fritz K u h n . T h e Bundesleiter, u n d e r a massive portrait o f G e o r g e W a s h i n g t o n a n d oversized A m e r i c a n flags, m a d e a speech attacking the President, calling h i m "Frank D. R o s e n f e l d , " and accusing the federal g o v e r n m e n t o f c o n s p i r i n g with "Bolsheviks." Following the rally K u h n was arrested by the N e w York District A t t o r n e y f o r f o r g e r y a n d larceny; this arrest and K u h n ' s subsequent i m p r i s o n m e n t m a r k e d the b e g i n n i n g o f the e n d for the organization. G e r h a r d Kunze was n a m e d the n e w Bundesleiter, but because o f political infighting a n d negative p u b l i c p e r c e p t i o n the m e m b e r s h i p b e g a n to d e c l i n e . T h e Bund was dissolved o n D e c e m b e r 8, 1941, the day after the attack o n Pearl H a r b o r . Following G e r m a n y ' s declaration o f war with the U n i t e d States, federal officials raided the h o m e s and businesses o f Bund leaders. Many were arrested f o r "subversive activities," i n c l u d i n g G e r h a r d K u n z e , w h o was a p p r e h e n d e d in M e x i c o a n d served a 15-year s e n t e n c e . For c o n s p i r i n g to violate the 1940 Selective Service A c t , 24 Bundists were arrested a n d served time in

prison. S o m e Bund leaders c o m m i t t e d suicide b e f o r e federal officials caught u p with t h e m ; o t h e r m e m b e r s h a d their A m e r i c a n citizenship revoked, but the majority were left a l o n e . By J u n e 1942 the last signs o f the Bund disappeared. After the war Fritz K u h n was d e p o r t e d by the United States to Germany, w h e r e h e d i e d as a " p e r s o n a n o n grata" in 1951.

T h e b a s i c Civil D e f e n s e a r m b a n d insignia w a s a r e d " C D " on a w h i t e triangle on a

HOME DEFENSE & PRE-MILITARY TRAINING

blue disc, but other e m b l e m s r e p l a c e d t h e l e t t e r s t o identify specialist personnel. Some of t h o s e i l l u s t r a t e d h e r e a r e

O f f i c e of C i v i l i a n D e f e n s e ( O C D ) T h e O C D was established o n May 20, 1941 to c o o r d i n a t e federal, state, and local defense programs for the p r o t e c t i o n o f civilians during air raids and other e m e r g e n c i e s , and to facilitate civilian participation in war programs. As an administrative aid, the national O C D organization was divided i n t o n i n e r e g i o n a l o f f i c e s , c o i n c i d e n t with A r m y C o m m a n d s . These offices a d o p t e d and e x p l a i n e d national p r o g r a m s and offered expert technical advice, but did n o t actually carry them o u t - that was left to states and c o m m u n i t i e s . T h e local D e f e n s e C o u n c i l was the central p l a n n i n g a n d coordinating b o d y for all programs relating to c o m m u n i t y and civilian war effort. As such, it had the responsibility o f mobilizing all forces in the c o m m u n i t y which c o u l d h e l p protect the c o m m u n i t y and prosecute the war. T h e responsibility e x t e n d e d to the mobilization o f civilian volunteers; the Defense C o u n c i l carried o u t this charge t h r o u g h the establishment o f a Volunteer Office, and the a p p o i n t m e n t o f a C o m m a n d e r o f the Citizens D e f e n s e C o r p s a n d an Executive o f the Citizens Service Corps, to which volunteers were referred. With the e n d o f the war the O C D was abolished in June 1945 - only to b e revived during the Cold War. T h e Civil Defense symbol, consisting o f a red " C D " o n a white triangle within a blue circle, was created in 1939 by Charles T. Coiner, art d i r e c t o r o f the N.W. Ayer advertising agency (who also designed the National Recovery Administration's blue e a g l e ) . T h e symbol b e c a m e familiar to generations o f Americans w h o r e m e m b e r e d air raid drills, blackouts, and fallout shelters d u r i n g the C o l d War. R i c h a r d G r e f e , executive director o f the American Institute o f Graphic Arts, n o t e d that "the o l d mark fits in the same category o f simplicity and impact occupied by the London U n d e r g r o u n d m a p . " In 2007 the o l d symbol o f the O f f i c e o f Civil D e f e n s e , n o w r e f o r m e d and r e n a m e d as the Federal Emergency A g e n c y ( F E M A ) , was retired.

OFFICIAL

UNITED

( s e c o n d row) t h e r e d a i r p l a n e of b o m b r e c o n n a i s s a n c e , d i a g o n a l s t r i p e s of air raid w a r d e n s , a n d s h i e l d of auxiliary p o l i c e ; (third row) t h e f l a m e of fire w a t c h e r s , t h e p i c k of d e m o l i t i o n s q u a d s , t h e l a d d e r of r e s c u e w o r k e r s , a n d t h e r e t o r t of d e c o n t a m i n a t i o n s q u a d s ; (fourth row) m e d i c a l p e r s o n n e l , t h e i r aides, drivers, and messengers, a n d t h e c u p of e m e r g e n c y f e e d i n g s t a t i o n s ; (fifth row) t h e p i n c e r s of e l e c t r i c a l r e p a i r m e n , t h e m u l t i p l e s y m b o l s of i n s t r u c t o r s , t h e insignia of c h a p l a i n s , a n d t h e plain " C D " of t r a i n e e s .

CIVILIAN

STATES

DEFENSE

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