Authoritarian States - Course Companion - Gray, Perera, Aylward and Habibi - Oxford 2015

SAVE OFFLINE

O X

F O

R

D

I B

D

I P L O

M

A

P

R

O

G R

A

M

M

E

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

C O U R S E

C O M PA N I O N

Brian Gray

Sanjay Perera

Verity Aylward

Mariam Habibi

The

the

3

R Great

Clarendon

Street,

Oxford,

OX2

6DP,

United

authors

Bessel:

University

Oxford.

It

Press

furthers

the

is

a

department

University’s

of

the

objective

University

of

of

excellence

scholarship,

and

education

by

pp

publishing

Chapter

83-84,

is

UK

a

registered

and

in

trade

certain

mark

other

of

Oxford

University

Press

©

Oxford

University

Press

moral

First

All

rights

published

rights

form

writing

by

law,

or

the

No

stored

by

in

authors

any

part

a

have

of

this

retrieval

means,

been

asserted

publication

system,

without

of

Oxford

University

by

licence

or

c/o

of

rights

L

The

A

Rights

under

Press,

terms

the

or

or

as

may

be

transmitted,

prior

outside

the

Reitch

edited

Outcasts

By

Real

in

by

the

permission

Fidel

Castro

2003.

Andrew

The

with

the

in

R

Bessel

of

Third

(1987)

Reitch’

Oxford

(New

by

J

University

Haven:

Reproduced

Lownie

Struggle

Crew:

bury

Enquiries

scope

of

Oxford

the

reprint

94

words

Noakes,

Yale

Press.

University

by

permission

of

Press,

the

Literary

au-

Agency.

from

Hitler

p.93.

Dikotter:

for

Egypt:

Publishing

46,

Press

and

By

The

pp.

the

/

50,

from

By

Nasser

Nazis:

Plc.

of

78

&

permission

A

permission

Tragedy

67-8,

to

History

of

Reproduced

of

in

Tahrir

by

By

Square

permission

Oxford

University

Documents

Oxford

Liberation,

92.

(2006)

University

29

August

101

Press,

2013,

USA

Blooms-

permission.

appropriate Gay:

THE

WEIMAR

CULTURE:

THE

OUTSIDER

AS

INSIDER.

concerning

above

University

from

University

David

Frank

permitted

words

USA.

words

in

permission

expressly

agreed

organization.

Department,

93.

Cook:

147

Oxford

should

be

sent

Press,

at

the

©

2001,

1968

by

Peter

Gay.

Used

by

permission

of

W.

to W.

the

&

Coltman

Copyright reproduction

‘Social

The

Press,

Peter reprographics

to

2015

2015

reserved.

reproduced,

any

of

in

permission

in

(2012)

The

Third

for

countries

Steven ©

the

grateful

worldwide.

thor the

90

Coltman:

2003). Oxford

in

are

material:

in L

research,

Life

publisher

copyright

Kingdom from

Oxford

and

following

Norton

&

Company,

Inc.

address

N

Gregor:

Nazism

edited

by

N

&

By

permission

Gregor

(2000)

204

words

from

pp.

above.

244-246, You

must

not

circulate

this

work

in

any

other

form

and

you

this

same

condition

on

any

Library

Cataloguing

in

Publication

Oxford

University

Press.

G

W

the

Lüdecke:

Night

of

the

I

Knew

Long

Hitler:

Knives

The

Lost

edited

Testimony

and

by

a

introduced

Survivor

by

Bob

Car-

Data ruthers.

Data

of

acquirer

from British

284.

must

Kurt impose

257-258

Reproduced

by

permission

of

Pen

and

Sword

Books.

available

J

Noakes

and

G

Pridham:

Nazism

1919-45,

Vol

2,

University

of

978-0-19-831022-8 Exeter

1

3

5

7

Paper

9

product

The

10

8

used

6

in

4

2

the

made

from

Printed

in

of

the

the

UK

wood

process

Bell

this

grown

country

by

of

in

book

a

natural,

sustainable

conforms

of

is

to

the

recyclable

forests.

environmental

Bain

Quentin

Strategy

from

origin.

and

David

and

Photo;

p18:

Ltd,

Glasgow

p31:

Keystone/Getty

&

Co

AFP/Getty

Keppler,

Images;

p48:

Udo

Corbis;

p43:

Images;

p37:

of

p51:

Owen

Evans;

Evans;

Zeitung

p73:

Bibalex;

Mary

Mary

J/Library

Sueddeutsche

p72:

Nasser

Publishers;

Idzkiewicz;

Extracts

p21:

Images;

p27:

p64:

DIZ

p67:

Hurst

“Blueshade”

Images;

Muenchen

AFP/Getty

History/Bridgeman

p61:

GmbH,

©

1990

John

of

p80:

Magnum

Photos;

Collection/Prismatic

p83:

bild/Getty

Images;

p89:

Getty

Images;

p92:

Bettmann/Corbis;

Getty

Images;

p96:

Art

Cuban

Photo;

Directors

&

p93:

Independent

Although

Images;p117:

Collection;

The

Corbis;

p127:

Picture

p120:

Bettman/Corbis;

p143:

Photo

p156:

p90:

p97:

Service/Alamy;

Alamy;

p188:

States

Images;

p165:

p179:

United

States

Library;

p192:

University

p123:

p146:

Pictures

p174:

History

History;

p187:

Heidelberg

Holocaust

p219:

Memorial

Museum;

University

by

QBS

by

Works:

Granger

Images;

From

of

History/

Images;

Social

University

Museum;

p190:

Heidelberg

Library;

p193:

Zeitung

Strautniekas,

and

OUP.

Folio

Marxists

THE

D.

of

p.

War

224

https://www.marxists.org/

https://www.marxists.org/

Organization

we

SEARCH

FOR

Spence.

Used

Reproduced

Reference

by

Archive.

MODERN

by

CHINA.

permission

of

Copyright

W.

W.

Inc.

The

Egypt

(Princeton:

have

made

before

of

Nasser

and

Princeton

every

Sadat:

The

University

effort

publication

If

notied,

the

publisher

at

to

the

earliest

third

p178:

Library;

United

University

Heidelberg

Photo;

party

Political

Press,

Economy

2014).

Re-

this

to

trace

has

not

and

contact

been

all

possible

copy-

in

will

rectify

any

errors

or

omis

opportunity.

and

for

websites

information

for

the

materials

Chris

Archives/Alamy;

p191:

Süddeutsche

Karolis

Learning

II,

are

only.

provided

Oxford

by

Oxford

disclaims

any

in

good

respon-

Coast

Features;

Institute

Jones;

Heidelberg

illustration

Artwork

Vol.

(20th

p223:

War

Posters/Alamy.

Cover

Problems

Archives/

U.S.

Jacquet-Francillon/AFP/Getty

Memorial

Library;

Zedong.

of

Works,

Photo12/UIG/

p111:

ChinaFotoPress/Getty

Collection/International

Alpha

Mao

transcribers

Selected

Images;

Collector/Getty

Collection/UIG/Rex

Images;

p150:

Gareth

Holocaust

Collector/Print

Interfoto/Alamy;

p142:

12/UIG/Getty

Landsberger

History;

Print

Mondadori

p133:

Bridgeman

of

1938),

permission.

holders

referenced p112:

the

Company,

Regimes

sibility p102:

University

p76:

School

Underwood

Trip/Alamy;

&

by

faith

Hellier/Corbis;

Baggin:

6,

Selected

Jonathan

produced

Links

Guard;

Liverpool

Images;

Images;

Pictures/Bridgeman

AP

of

Waterbury:

Two

sions Ullstein

the

Spence:

by

Norton

cases.

p82:

Brian

Works

from

Jonathan

Abd

right

Century)/Private

of

p23:

p38:

Przemyslaw

STR/AFP/Getty

Photo/Alamy;

From

Photo;

Keystone-France/Gamma-

p44:

p49:

AP

Franken/Corbis;

Congress;

Pictures

Bettmann/Corbis;

permission

reference/archive/mao/selected-works/index.htm).

Keystone-France/Gamma-Keystone/Getty

Al-Samee’a;

and

(November

Selected

permission AP

by

reference/archive/mao/works/red-book/ch05.htm.

Acknowledgements

p13:

Reproduced

Press.

production

manufacturing

regulations

1984.

Illustration

Agency.

in

this

work.

contained

in

any

third

party

website

all

Course Companion denition

The IB learner Prole

The

The

are

IB

Diploma

resource

students

Programme

materials

throughout

Programme

They

will

what

is

course

help

their

of

from

to

Companions

support

two-year

study

students

expected

Course

designed

in

gain

the

a

an

Diploma

particular

their

subject.

understanding

study

of

an

IB

aim

of

all

of

of

common

the

planet,

peaceful

subject

while

presenting

way

content

that

IB.

illustrates

They

reect

the

the

purpose

and

philosophy

aims

and

the

IB

and

encourage

a

deep

each

issues

subject

and

by

making

providing

connections

opportunities

for

to

the

IB

and

use

of

in

a

terms

wide

of

a

mindedness,

Diploma

of

Each

the

service

book

materials

required

variety

IB

philosophy

of

viewing

whole-course

can

and

and

of

of

resources,

learner

Programme

knowledge,

activity,

a

the

range

core

that

doing,

indeed,

in

prole

the

and

resources.

and

further

reading

and

suggestions

for

conjunction

to

of

draw

the

given

how

to

and

actively

in

creativity,

with

IB

for

each

extend

will

be

have

they

of

natural

to

curiosity.

conduct

show

enjoy

independence

learning

and

in

this

sustained

throughout

their

love

lives.

They

local

explore

and

acquire

concepts,

global

in-depth

ideas,

signicance.

knowledge

and

In

across

a

broad

and

and

balanced

disciplines.

Thinkers

IB

theory

other

thinking

and

from

additional

research

exercise

critically

complex

ethical

and

more

of

one

applying

to

and

understand

condently

language

communication.

in

in

creatively

problems,

They

information

than

initiative

and

recognize

make

decisions.

Communicators

willingly

book

They

skills

approach

ideas

are

conclusions

Suggestions

are

more

be:

approach;

and

essay,

students

encouraged

their

necessary

understanding

reasoned,

used

to

the

(CAS).

be

strive

guardianship

and

international

requirements,

extended

skills

research

Knowledgable

range the

develop

the

They

learning

develop curriculum

better

wider

critical

so mirror

a

understanding

issues

books

learners

recognizing

shared

of

thinking.

The

create

develop

approach

of of

They

acquire

learning. of

IB

to

and

to

who,

in

inquiry the

humanity

help

is

people

Diploma

They a

programmes

minded

world.

Inquirers Programme

IB

internationally

and

They

in

work

collaboration

with

a

and

and

express

creatively

variety

of

effectively

in

modes

and

others.

are Principled

They

act

with

integrity

and

honesty,

provided. with

In

addition,

and

the

guidance

requirements

They

are

Course

on

the

and

on

distinctive

Companions

specic

course

academic

and

provide

advice

assessment

honesty

authoritative

protocol.

for

a

strong

the

sense

dignity

communities.

actions

and

of

fairness,

justice,

individual,

take

and

groups,

responsibility

consequences

that

respect

and

for

their

accompany

own

them.

without Open-minded

being

the

They

the

of

They

understand

and

appreciate

prescriptive. their

own

open

to

cultures

the

and

personal

perspectives,

histories,

values,

and

and

are

traditions

IB mission statement of

The

International

inquiring,

who

help

world

Baccalaureate

knowledgable

to

create

through

a

and

better

caring

and

intercultural

aims

to

develop

young

more

people

peaceful

understanding

other

individuals

accustomed

points

of

to

view,

and

seeking

and

are

communities.

and

evaluating

willing

to

They

a

grow

are

range

from

of

the

experience.

and Caring

They

show

empathy,

compassion,

and

respect. respect

To

this

end

the

governments

develop

IB

and

works

and

schools,

international

challenging

education

with

organizations

programmes

rigorous

They

of

to

international

act

towards

have

to

a

make

others

and

a

the

programmes

world

lifelong

with

to

learners

their

encourage

become

who

active,

students

can

across

compassionate,

understand

differences,

needs

to

positive

the

and

feelings

commitment

difference

to

to

of

others.

service,

the

lives

and

of

environment.

assessment. Risk-takers

These

the

personal

also

be

that

other

right.

and

people,

They

and

uncertainty

and

have

new

the

roles,

articulate

with

and

unfamiliar

courage

independence

ideas,

in

approach

and

of

defending

their

forethought,

spirit

strategies.

situations

to

They

explore

are

brave

and

beliefs.

iii

Balanced

They

intellectual,

achieve

understand

physical,

personal

and

the

importance

emotional

well-being

for

themselves

accepted

of

balance

full

to

of

and

A

others.

Reective

to

their

They

own

give

thoughtful

learning

and

forms

of

information

your

work

presentation.

as

can

bibliography

is

to

how

nd

a

the

You

reader

same

compulsory

in

must

or

provide

viewer

information.

the

extended

essay.

consideration

experience.

They

are

What constitutes misconduct? able

to

assess

and

understand

their

strengths

and Misconduct

limitations

in

order

to

support

their

learning

result personal

is

behaviour

that

results

in,

or

may

and in,

you

or

any

student

gaining

an

unfair

development. advantage

in

Misconduct

one

or

more

includes

assessment

plagiarism

and

component.

collusion.

A note on academic honesty

It

is

of

vital

importance

appropriately

when

After

that

all,

credit

to

the

information

owners

of

acknowledge

owners

is

used

ideas

of

in

Plagiarism

and

ideas

information

your

property

rights.

To

(intellectual

have

an

are

work,

it

must

be

based

on

your

original

ideas

with

the

work

Words

Therefore,

all

the

some

of

representation

person

the

ways

as

to

your

of

own.

avoid

the

The

plagiarism:

and

ideas

of

another

person

used

to

one’s

arguments

must

be

acknowledged.

individual

of

others

Passages

that

are

quoted

verbatim

must

fully

be acknowledged.

as

another

piece

●

and

dened

of

property)

authentic

support

of

is

work

following

work.

●

have

or

assignments,

enclosed

within

quotation

marks

and

written

acknowledged. or

oral,

own

used

completed

language

or

referred

quotation

or

for

and

assessment

expression.

to,

whether

paraphrase,

appropriately

in

such

must

Where

the

use

your

sources

form

sources

of

are

●

direct

must

CD-ROMs,

Internet,

be

treated

email

and

in

the

The

sources

same

of

illustrations,

all

the

ideas

of

footnotes

Footnotes

endnotes

to

be

from

you

acknowledge

other

and

people

(placed

provided

information

is

that

through

you

the

have

use

●

of

at

at

the

the

when

document,

provided

bottom

end

you

in

of

a

quote

or

need

to

provide

a

Works

of

a

page)

part

document)

or

of

not

a

‘body

need

assumed

to

of

be

closely

another

summarize

resources

listing

should

books,

based

footnote

document.

for

knowledge’.

iv

footnoted

as

You

information

That

they

is,

are

that

you

include

magazines,

you

include

used

all

in

and

should

a

must

be

journals.

works

use

one

of

of

list

work.

of

the

are

graphs,

must

be

not

your

own

work.

whether

or

of

visual

music,

lm,

dance,

a

part

arts,

use

must

acknowledged.

of

a

and

where

work

takes

the

be

place,

another

is

dened

student.

as

This

supporting

misconduct

by

includes:

do

the

of

The

Internet-

art.

they

data,

material

allowing

your

work

to

be

copied

or

submitted

that

including

articles,

if

maps,

assessment

by

another

student

denitions

part

formal

your

resources,

newspaper

CDs

art,

arts,

duplicating

work

components

should

that

resources,

means

and

programs,

similar

creative

Collusion

the

knowledge.

Bibliographies

the

the

are

paraphrase

●

do

books

on

media

or

for is

of

theatre

●

not

sites

used

bibliographies.

(placed

another

as

photographs,

and

acknowledged that

web

electronic

way

computer

audio-visual,

How do I acknowledge the work of others?

way

other

acknowledged. ●

The

messages,

any

‘Formal’

several

Other

that

forms

gives

results

taking

room,

of

you

of

unfair

another

CAS

include

or

Examples

material

during

record.

assessment

requirements.

advantage

student.

unauthorized

a

different

diploma

misconduct

an

misconduct

falsifying

for

and/or

an

into

an

any

action

affects

the

include,

examination

examination,

and

C ontents

Your guide to Paper 2

2

1

7

Egypt – Nasser

1.1

The

emergence

1.2

Nasser’s

consolidation

1.3

Nasser’s

policies,

Exam-style

Skills

2

section:

2.2

of

Egypt,

power,

1914–1952

1952–1954

Answering

2.3

1952–1970

28

54

exam

questions

55

rise

Castro’s

consolidation

Exam-style

Skills

57

Castro’s

section:

to

power

1959

and

59

maintenance

of

1959–1962

Castro’s

domestic

80

policies

93

questions

107

Constructing

the

essay

108

China – Mao

110

3.1

Mao’s

rise

3.2

Mao’s

consolidation

3.3

Mao’s

economic

Exam-style

Skills

section:

to

power

1949

of

and

112

power,

social

1949–1976

policies

148

questions

160

Evaluation

161

The

163

emergence

of

the

authoritarian

state

in

1919–1934

4.2

Hitler’s

4.3

The

Skills

section:

Further

and

results

of

of

power,

Nazi

1934–1935

policies

questions

Evaluating

sources

Comparing

states

229

leaders

of

different

233

Index

resources

210

231

template:

authoritarian

183

228

reading

Revision

Germany,

164

consolidation

aims

Exam-style

Extra

127

Germany – Hitler

4.1

9

19

questions

power,

4

Nasser’s

Cuba – Castro

2.1

3

of

234

for

this

book

can

be

found

at www.oxfordsecondary.com/ib-history-resources.

1

Y o u r

G u i d e

The

t o

Pa P e r

information

prescriptive.

For

in

this

book

example,

relates

any

2

to

key

relevant

gures

leader

can

or

events

but

be

referred

to

is

not

in

an

th

answer

chosen

an

on

Authoritarian

well-known

opportunity

guide

The

as

to

the

aim

of

this

●

provide

●

introduce

●

develop

●

introduce

in

to

world

explore

necessary

book

depth

key

skills

States

is

and

own

concepts

to

20

century.

events

in

While

this

authors

book,

regionalhistoryusing

know

and

there

the

content

in

this

of

a

world

history

topic

concepts

providing

tasks

historical

and

exercises

perspectives

related

to

key

book

is

linked

to

the

six

key

IB

events/

concepts.

Change

Perspectives

Continuity

Key

concepts

Significance

Causation

Consequence

2

also

book

tounderstand.

personalities.

The

is

have

to:

knowledge

different

the

leaders

your

historical

by

in

as

a

Y O U R

●

How to use this book

This

of

book

contains

Authoritarian

sections

States

in

relating

the

20th

to

key

century

as

Consider

the

for

prescribed

example,

content

conditions

section

that

of

the

T O

P A P E R

exam-style

chapter

and

your

knowledge

think

2

questions

how

you

at

the

would

end

of

apply

aspects and

understanding

in

an

essay

outlined

IB

contributed

the

each

in in

G U I D E

response

to

the

question.

syllabus,

to

As

the

you

work

through

the

book

make

sure

you

th

emergence

of

authoritarian

leaders

in

the

develop

20

information

century.

These You

strategies

should

use

this

book

in

the

following

may

be

To

gain

more

signicant

detailed

event

or

knowledge

about

a

cards

leader

To

gain

insight

and

and

learning

and ●

understanding

of

(explanations)

of

an

you

learn,

understanding

in

is

the

form

important),

other

style.

methods

It

is

better

understanding

of

retaining

you

have

timelines

the

acquired.

as

spider

(where

diagrams,

to

suit

to

consolidate

you

go

your

along;

cue

individual

knowledge

this

will

make

different

revision perspectives

help

ways: chronology

●

and

to

for

the

examination

easier.

historical

event

What you will be expected to do ●

Use

the

exercises

to

increase

your

There understanding

and

skills,

particularly

are

requires skill

of

analysis

when

contributing

to

of

an

world

you

to

history

study

two

topics

of

and

them.

the

You

course

should

the

learn formulation

12

the

about

a

range

of

factors

in

the

prescribed

argument

content

table

Topic

relevant

for

Topic

to

10:

each

topic

area,

Authoritarian

as

States

shown

(20th

in

this

century)

Prescribed content

●

Emergence of

Conditions in which authoritarian states emerged: economic factors; social division;

impact of war; weakness of political system

authoritarian states

●

Methods used to establish authoritarian states: persuasion and coercion; the role of

leaders; ideology; the use of force; propaganda

Consolidation and

●

Use of legal methods; use of force; charismatic leadership; dissemination of propaganda

●

Nature, extent and treatment of opposition

●

The impact of the success and/or failure of foreign policy on the maintenance of power

●

Aims and impact of domestic economic, political, cultural and social policies

●

The impact of policies on women and minorities

●

Authoritarian control and the extent to which it was achieved

maintenance of power

Aims and results of

policies

Make

sure

under

these

the

terms

questions.

these

right

●

you

will

If

terms,

and

If

be

you

understand

heading

be

used

you

have

you

will

able

are

all

the

“prescribed

to

a

to

get

studying

structure

clear

the

select

terms

content”

of

your

appropriate

“The

causes

of

all

of

a

their

are

is

studying

“Rivalry,

question

crises

answers

effects

you

get

examples.

and

If

area

examination

understanding

focus

●

used

because

each

The

Paper

2

that

chosen

impact

prescribed

the

on

Cold

mistrust

focuses

from

the

War

and

a

Cold

and

accord”,

on

“two

different

War”,

as

the

topic

you

Cold

region

stated

may

war

and

in

the

content.

examination

is

an

essay

test

in

th

20

-century

focus

on

is

in

the

If

you

wars”,

“political

an

or

prescribed

exam

question

economic

may

causes”,

which

whichyou

in

90

must

content.

This ●

may

are

get

a

studying

question

“Emergence

the

to

focus

is

of

on

“methods

Authoritarian

dealing

with

authoritarian

the

used

“use

to

of

States,

the

states”.

force”,

establish

are

minutes

choose

expected

in

two

to

45

answer

different

questions

amounts

to

from

minutes

two

topic

two

per

questions

areas.

different

question

You

topics.

–

not

you much

time

for

answering

broad

questions

what

can

be

rather

topic on

two

different

subjects.

One

When

this

of

the

in

this

most

critical

components

in

succeeding

relates examination,

therefore,

is

good

time

authoritarian management.

states”

In

the

prescribed

content.

3

Pa p e r

2

The

are

best

to

ways

read

essays

and

addition

you

to

to

need

to

improve

examples

practise

timing,

to

of

writing

you

produce

your

a

essay-writing

effective,

must

good

skills

them

yourself.

understand

The

focus

examples

well-structured

words

are

identied

in

the

below:

In

the

skills

Example 1

answer.

Evaluate the signicance of economic factors in the rise

th

to power of one 20

century authoritarian leader.

What the exam paper will look like The question is asking about the impor tance of

The

will

be

24

questions

with

two

questions

set

economic issues and crises in the rise to power of an

for

each

of

the

twelve

topics.

There

will

be

clear

authoritarian leader.

headings

identifying

the

topics

and

the

questions

A good answer would be expected to include a range of will

focus

on

different

aspects

of

the

topic

as

factors (popularity, threat of force and weakness of existing outlined

in

the

prescribed

content.

political system) not just economic factors, before making

The

no

questions

specic

will

allow

will

names

you

to

understanding

be

or

“open”

events

apply

in

(with

mentioned).

your

response

questions

knowledge

to

the

a judgment on the importance of economic factors in the

This

rise to power of the chosen leader.

and

question

set.

Example 2 Some

questions

may

ask

you

to

refer

to

events

or

The outcome of Civil war is often decided by the actions leaders,

“each

chosen

from

a

different

region”.

of Foreign powers. To what extent do you agree with this

statement with reference to t wo civil wars each chosen

Preparing for Paper 2 from dierent regions.

Make

sure

you

terms

used

understand

what

the

command

The question is asking you to consider whether the end in

essay

questions

are

asking

you

to

do.

of civil wars is usually decided by foreign powers. Again The

most

common

command

terms

are:

you should consider a range of factors relevant to your

●

Compare

Identify

specic

●

and

contrast

similarities

factor

or

and

chosen examples. It is quite possible that the statement

differences

relating

to

a

Discuss

Review

applies to one of them but not the other.

event

Example 3

a

range

of

arguments

Evaluate the social and economic challenges facing one

●

Weigh

up

question

and

●

newly independent state and how eectively they were

Evaluate

strengths

this

is

and

often

limitations.

expressed

as

In

an

essay

“successes

dealt with.

The question is asking you to do two things – identify

failures”

social and economic problems and then assess

the success and failures of attempts to solve those Examine

problems. Consider

a

an

judgment

argument

as

to

the

or

assumption

validity

of

and

make

either

The

●

To

what

do

This

usually

refers

to

a

quotation

or

a

you

to

agree

or

disagree

with

and

the

Essay skills

write

about.

Understanding

of

usually

4

the

two

the

skills

or

focus

and

three

of

a

question

examiner

focus

looks

words

in

is

vital

for.

a

Make

understand

the

examiner

are

understood”

markbands

one

tells

words

you

tell

what

you

you

what

have

you

to

have

it

clear

in

your

answers

that

it you

is

term

focus

statement, to

inviting

command

extent

as

this

There

question.

are

both

that

for

–

of

“the

a

these

demands

phrase

Paper

2.

and

that

you

of

is

will

the

used

show

question

in

the

Y O U R

G U I D E

T O

P A P E R

2

Markbands

Marks

Level descriptor

0

Answers do not reach a standard described by the descriptors below.

1–3

There is little understanding of the demands of the question. The response is poorly structured or, where there

is a recognizable essay structure, there is minimal focus on the task .

Little knowledge of the world history topic is present.

The student identies examples to discuss, but these examples are factually incorrect, irrelevant or vague.

The response contains little or no critical analysis. The response may consist mostly of generalizations and

poorly substantiated asser tions.

4–6

The response indicates some understanding of the demands of the question. While there may be an attempt

to follow a structured approach, the response lacks clarity and coherence.

Knowledge of the world history topic is demonstrated, but lacks accuracy and relevance. There is a supercial

understanding of historical context.

The student identies specic examples to discuss, but these examples are vague or lack relevance.

There is some limited analysis, but the response is primarily narrative or descriptive in nature rather than

analytical.

7–9

The response indicates an understanding of the demands of the question, but these demands are only

par tially addressed. There is an attempt to follow a structured approach.

Knowledge of the world history topic is mostly accurate and relevant. Events are generally placed in their

historical context.

The examples that the student chooses to discuss are appropriate and relevant. The response makes links

and/or comparisons (as appropriate to the question).

The response moves beyond description to include some analysis or critical commentary, but this is not sustained.

10–12

The demands of the question are understood and addressed. Responses are generally well structured and

organized, although there is some repetition or lack of clarity in places.

Knowledge of the world history topic is mostly accurate and relevant. Events are placed in their historical

context, and there is some understanding of historical concepts.

The examples that the student chooses to discuss are appropriate and relevant, and are used to suppor t the

analysis/evaluation. The response makes eective links and/or comparisons (as appropriate to the question).

The response contains critical analysis, which is mainly clear and coherent. There is some awareness and

evaluation of dierent perspectives. Most of the main points are substantiated and the response argues to a

consistent conclusion.

13–15

Responses are clearly focused, showing a high degree of awareness of the demands and implications of the

question. Responses are well structured and eectively organized.

Knowledge of the world history topic is accurate and relevant. Events are placed in their historical context,

and there is a clear understanding of historical concepts.

The examples that the student chooses to discuss are appropriate and relevant, and are used eectively to support

the analysis/evaluation. The response makes eective links and/or comparisons (as appropriate to the question).

The response contains clear and coherent critical analysis. There is evaluation of dierent perspectives, and

this evaluation is integrated eectively into the answer. All, or nearly all, of the main points are substantiated,

and the response argues to a consistent conclusion.

5

Pa p e r

2

Common weaknesses in exam answers

Many

tell

answers

the

story

shown.

Other

the

This

is

examiners

are

lack

These

often

describe

frequent

to

of

not

of

as

not

reach

that

or

exam

higher

the

answers

knowledge

markbands.

some

focus

evidence;

on

vague

answers

support

these

about

on

what

assertion.

examiners

the

detail;

have

factual

knowledge

mean

in

by

great

which

unsubstantiated

question

weaknesses

will

in

comment

inaccurate

comments

comments

the

that

statements

or

inadequate

answer

often

analytical

answers:

inaccurate

do

not

analysis.

generalizations

contain

This

is

one

enough

of

the

answers.

comments:

knowledge

are

no

answer

limited

detail

types

knowledge

or

consist

with

too

These

little

narrative

often

common

Other

make

but

some

of

evidence

most

a

answers

question

Here

demonstrate

but

is

present

types

not

of

using

make

but

much

there

comments

knowledge

clear

links

to

narration

is

limited

mean

to

the

focus

that

answer

focus

of

on

the

the

question

candidates

the

particular

the

question.

know

quite

question.

a

lot

but

Answers

do

Writing good essays

Good

essays

consist

of

a

combination

Question

of

three

elements:

focus

Analysis

Accurate

and

comments

relevant

knowledge

knowledge

linking

the

A

good

of

structure

line

More

information

each

6

essay

your

argument

on

authoritarian

will

clear

essay

state

ensure

and

skills

leader.

that

your

can

be

you

focus

found

don’t

on

in

miss

the

the

and

on

back

to

question

out

key

question

Skills

the

shown,

at

sections

factors,

all

at

keep

times.

the

end

of

1

E g y p T

–

N a s s E r

The lobl context

The

an

victors

end

to

totalitarian

other

in

the

one

Second

World

War

had

form

of

authoritarianism

regimes

of

Germany

types

of

authoritarian

and

regime

–

put

as

the

Italy

–

but

emerge

in

the

the

globe,

post-war

Authoritarianism

that

the

restricts

press

or

and

Participation

is

only

the

is

a

system

represses

all

political

permitted

of

military

as

the

others

rested

frequent.

Military

of

promised

them

the

came

to

forms

as

ruler.

the

juntas,

power

they

popular

base,

it

of

In

the

limited

not

and

an

as

became

they

are

in

a

the

use

of

in

they

the

prevalent

East,

as

namel y

immediate

weak,

powers.

and

in

where

The

in

then

Latin

dependent

war,

where

was

factors

a

also

region

brought

that

this

powers

of

of

of

economy.

and

had

humiliated

Britain

like

weak

legacy

nationalist

status

controlled

and

Egypt

successive

an

In

France.

with

a

leaders

impoverished

the

aftermath

movements

began

to

and

and

of

the

challenge

quo.

more

d’état,

by

further

also

this

humiliation,

precipitated

the

the

Second

events

in

World

Palestine,

or two

communities,

the

local

Palestinians

establishing

milita r y

the

we re

de pe nd e nt

o ffe r ed

authority

the

and

e xi ste d

Por tu ga l .

they

and

l e a de r s

a nd

a lr e ad y

and

y ea r s

Ame ri ca

civilia n

patriotism,

and

future.

the

Jewish

settlers,

competed

with

one

maintained

r e g ime s

S p ai n

po s t- wa r

corrupt,

They

people

over

their

right

to

the

land.

In

1948

the

force.

authoritar i a n

Europe,

It

countries

economic

Arab

Military

reforms.

ordinary

sometimes

coup

power

left

legacy

another through

to

external

changes.

imperial

had

political

threaten

those

the

This

post-war

states,

army,

by

censors

opposition.

is

does

through

stayed

which

East

traditionally

and a

Middle

been

where and

economic

better

these

War

“putsch”,

a

forth

To

called,

and

close

also

government

activities

long

with

be

persisted

would

pluralism,

authoritarian

authority

social

world.

eliminates

in

authority

world,

and

as

to

In throughout

well

appeared

In

be c a m e

Mid dle

League

with

the

new

with

the

defeat

Egypt

his

this

a

on

military

p e op le

political

p ri de

stability,

state

of

defeat

incompetent

pe r ce ive d

c ol on ia l

countries

wave

of

popular

in

of

was

Arab

This

blamed

which

1952.

The

remained

of

into

on

a

conict

war

nations

government

1952

revolts

Israel.

the

discontent,

coup

emerged

of

entered

the

and

it

ended

in

1949.

King

triggered

culminated

military

in

In

and

in

regime

power

until

the

that

the

2011.

Timeline

Egypt becomes a British protectorate

1914

1919

Anti British riots

Egypt obtains nominal independence. 1922 Britain still controls the Suez Canal

King Fouad dies and is replaced by his

son, Farouk . The Anglo-Egyptian Treaty 1936

is signed

th

The ‘4

of February incident’: the

British impose a new government on

1942

Egypt. Egypt joins other Arab states in a war 1948 against the State of Israel

7

1.1

The emergence of Nasser ’s Eg yp t,

1914–1952

Concetul undetndin

Key question

➔

What were the factors responsible for the emergence of the Free Ocers in

Egypt in 1952?

➔

What factors gave the Free Ocers the legitimacy to lead?

➔

How did the Free Ocers succeed in persuading the Egyptian people to

follow them?

Key concepts

➔

Causation

➔

Signicance

➔

Change

The coup d’état of 1952

At

07.30

to

the

on

the

Free

was

Revolution,

–

a

own

He

of

in

23

They

and

July

corrupt.

1952,

called

The

This,

leaders

act

they

Egyptian

Sadat

political

new

their

the

Anwar

new

justied

Gamal

a

book

hope

Abdel

and

on

“(...)

entertained

there

King

Nasser,

published

was

self-government

lived

23

Egypt’s

revolution”.

July

destiny”.

Fouad

of

ofcer

who

people

in

trajectory.

of

Egypt

because

believed,

woke

short

Egypt

called

Egypt,

had

a

had

been

themselves

they

caused

up

speech

claimed,

their

humiliation.

words

achieve

a

led

movement,

hope

young

Ofcers.

poorly

the

morning

a

announced

with

country’s

In

the

of

radio

“blessed

the

on

voice

July

in

exile

left

1954

by

the

to

entitled

abdicated

his

the

Egyptian

have

Egypt

until

emerging

represented

and

Farouk

26

in

the

for

the

in

death

in

The

people

last

on

in

word

of

this

of

a

of

the

long-cherished

modern

in

his

board

of

Philosophy

realization

favour

Italy

leader

times

determining

infant

his

son

yacht,

al

to

their

Ahmad

Mahrusa.

1965.

protectorate

A protectorate is distinct from a colony

Condition in Et befoe 1952

because it is an independent sovereign Egypt

had

obtained

nominal

independence

from

Britain

in

1922.

It

was

state. However, its autonomy is limited nominal

because

the

terms

of

the

agreement

left

British

troops

in

total

because it depends greatly on the control

of

the

Suez

Canal.

Since

the

opening

of

the

Suez

Canal

in

1869,

administrative, military and economic in

the

words

of

Laila

Amin

Morsy,

“Egypt

had

served

as

highway

of

trade

suppor t of a stronger state. In the Arab and

a

passage

of

conquest”.

As

early

as

1914,

with

the

outbreak

of

the

world, Aden in Yemen, Egypt and some of First

World

War,

the

strategic

importance

of

Egypt

and

the

Suez

Canal

had

the Gulf states – Bahrain, Kuwait, Qatar placed

the

country

under

tighter

foreign

control;

the

elected

Assembly

was

and the Emirates – were all protectorates. abolished

and

Egypt

became

a

British

protectorate

9

1

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

ASIA

Mediterranean

Sea

Suez

Canal

EGYPT

AFRICA

▲

“Fate had so willed that we should be on the crossroads of the world” Gamal Abdel-Nasser,

The Philosophy of the Revolution

During

the

war

Woodward,

against

in

the

1916,

farmers,

feed

landed

of

to

and

be

war

and

represented

Zaghlul’s

than

In

800

nally

–

the

at

1919,

riots

Egyptians

the

British

and

–

the

of

the

surrender

presence

and

country

of

it

and

Allied

forces

formed

Egyptian

and

troops

the

Peter

Force,

animals

British

paved

of

the

Expeditionary

to

discontent

words

operation

in

Saad

took

of

the

to

Wafd

talks:

Allies

way

punish

to

place,

government

its

him

Malta.

in

member

Party,

crops

was

for

a

to

major

numerous

The

This

which

why

British

daring

29

to

had

refused

to

British

continued

forced

deposed

agree

they

to

the

soldiers

not

agree

challenge

until

to

participated

should

enraged

“independence”.

independence

the

Egypt

war,

only

of

of

demanded

that

the

for

Tension

was

importance

a

given

win

conference?

killed.

Egypt

the

Zaghlul,

the

peace

him

were

give

in

soldiers

peace

exiled

the

or,

compelled

leader

Paris

and

for

demonstrated

helped

the

base

Egypt.

had

the

had

they

protectorate

10

at

demands

authority

more.

War

of

a

Egyptian

persistent

and

in

The

nationalists.

later

representation

the

The

reactions

World

Assembly

in

were

as

camp”

thousands

Fellahin,

Egyptian

used

transit

controversy

First

the

was

Powers.

soldiers.

nationalist

The

vast

Central

the

these

source

“a

Egypt

to

British

Egyptians

and

1922

more

when

terminate

the

C H A P T E R

1 . 1 :

T H E

E m E R g E n C E

o f

n A s s E R ’ s

E g y P T,

19 14 – 19 5 2

L Ta

Thinking and communication skills

Below is the text of the Declaration to Egypt by His

sides to conclude agreements in regard thereto

Britannic Majesty’s Government (28 February 1922):

between His Majesty’s Government and the

Government of Egypt: Whereas His Majesty’s Government, in accordance with

their declared intentions, desire forthwith to recognize

a

The security of the communications of the

Egypt as an independent sovereign State; and whereas

British Empire in Egypt;

the relations between His Majesty’s Government and b

The defence of Egypt against all foreign

Egypt are of vital interest to the British Empire; aggression or interference, direct or indirect;

The following principles are hereby declared:

c

1

The protection of foreign interests in Egypt

The British Protectorate over Egypt is terminated, and the protection of minorities;

and Egypt is declared to be an independent

d

The Soudan.

sovereign State.

Pending the conclusion of such agreements, status 2

So soon as the Government of His Highness shall

quo in all these matters shall remain intact. pass an Act of Indemnity with application to all

inhabitants of Egypt, mar tial law as proclaimed

Choose to represent either the British government or the

on 2 November 1914 shall be withdrawn.

3

At

rst,

The following matters are absolutely reserved

Discuss the terms of the 1922 Declaration of

to the discretion of His Majesty’s Government

Independence above with a representative from the other

until such time as it may be possible by free

government, and explain why you consider the terms of

discussion and friendly accommodation on both

the Declaration to be fair or unfair.

Egypt’s

nationalists

enemy,

journey,

the

rst

cent

In

of

of

Zaghlul

already

it

1936

of

1936

troops

in

the

fact

that

the

between

of

Egypt

forces

of

in

the

...

laws

the

left

Assembly

of

the

loosened

Suez

different

were

was

of

an

of

a

be

of

the

Wafd

Party

became

the

on

setback

had

of

a

powerful

great

deal

In

secured

He

the

1924

90

per

Minister.

in

ofce

revived

the

newspapers.

parliamentary

politician.

paved

The

the

king.

opposition,

for

a

of

Prime

opposition

experienced

Declaration

face

phase

to

opponents.

down

also

the

next

prove

Zaghlul

his

exemplary.

powers

the

leader

towards

Declaration

Britain’s

Article

Canal

authorizes

heavy-handed

1927

1922

and

as

the

in

the

would

held;

clamped

Egypt

country.

the

record

and

in

that

was

was

Besides,

way

for

rule

as

only

a

departure.

soldiers

personnel

the

courage

It

retained

were

intolerance

Egyptian

10 000

Treaty

in

terms

Treaty

showing

Egypt,

elections

death

British

the

of

independence

objective.

constitution

deprived

stated,

nominal

way,

their

excellent

press

untimely

because

In

his

showed

restrictive

His

seats

towards

the

governing

1923

legislative

the

spite

led

obtained

the

The

journey

had

and

harder.

Egyptian government.

...

is

parts

His

400

stationed

Egyptians

manner

...

of

grip

of

in

the

the

pilots

in

the

an

Majesty

territory

and

8

the

a

little,

new

British

the

well

Canal

but

Treaty

and

of

as

the

the

Zone.

British

stated:

of

“In

His

Canal

and

British

view

Majesty

Emperor

to

...”

necessary

had

Anglo-Egyptian

of

the

communication

Needless

dissatised

the

The

maintained

means

Empire,

King

vicinity

as

which

reviewed.

essential

extremely

in

were

to

King

A

garrison

ancillary

say,

resentful

treated

the

station

the

of

1936

the

them.

11

1

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

Unrest and disillusionment

The

Second

November

and,

once

World

1940

again,

Consequently

4

February

as

the

as

modern

took

one

In

last

Palestinians.

30

Taha,

in

almost

months

armistice

this

was

defeat

enemy’s

There

been

The

lesson

the

Abdel

to

the

trenches

of

of

pushed

greed

The

outcome

are

added

seen

prime

a

both

of

of

to

the

making.

and

Wafd

The

turning

King

neutrality,

its

demands.

the

In

its

presence

major

Farouk

on

Party

incident,

point

and

interfere

and

In

in

the

of

the

their

Farouk

the

with

that

the

of

a

the

in

Wafd

the

the

truce,

in

and

who

in

to

about

of

their

in

their

ground

March

fought

1949

that

incapacities

eyes,

distributed

with

the

Mahmoud

Pocket

superiority

country’s

their

land

held

his

Desert

Colonel

Faluja

ofcers

arms

of

lose

Sinai

Egyptians

own

had,

nally

the

returning

the

spite

accepted

to

to

crossed

command

followed,

many

brief

voted

on

siege

a

in

a

a

able

Wafd

the

more

battle

with

as

so.

by

(...)

The

the

for

an

battle,

as

abandoned

to

The

the

them.

soldiers

recalled

War,

in

had

in

There

al

the

the

when

was

“We

to

sat

full

to

us

also

re,

defeat

of

Since

the

the

hope

In

that

the

the

confronted

in

its

intrigues,

the

Arab

Egypt

and

nor

once

new

two

his

January

put

sacred

is

unarmed”.

Egyptians

might

was

total

here

1944

King

Free

It

in

duped

governments

people.

Nahhas,

is

the

movement

Ambitions,

country.

Gamal

d’état.

been

under

Neither

of

this

how

also

than

coup

country

has

also

with

of

an

Egypt’s

forming

happening

minority

anger

Mustafa

is

It

is

the

in

later,

preparation.

It

other

military

mother

returned

government.

none

a

ironically,

remedy

crucial

absorbed

assassinated.

optimism

was,

to

objective

What

destiny.

the

be

enemies.

unease

curb

70-year-old

was

Nasser

without

its

defeat

had

through

unpopular

been

to

aides

would

army.

Arab–Israeli

of

this

who

completely

existing

had

of

that,

(...),

succession

were

the

besieged

the

the

Taha’s

return

monarchy

only

into

moment

minister,

his

from

ones

motherland.

and

of

the

within

toying

to

learned

were

Faluja

the

ministers

ministers

a

not

appoint

Britain

army

the

Gaza.

due

King

the

of

there,

and

had

12

the

saving

problems

–

side,

For

Colonel

Movement

happening

turn

of

who

overthrow

oblivion

with

to

Africa.

spite

war

British

King

Israelis

they

rumours

they

One

Nasser,

Ofcers

duty

a

in

military

was

counterpart

that

much

for

under

of

before

ofcers

one:

weakness.

in

as

even

North

defective.

optimistic

was

battle

capabilities.

were

to

allowed

the

Israeli

signed.

was

bend

Egyptian

division,

its

adversary

10

the

north-east

the

their

humiliated

however,

defeating

The

kilometres

it

both

in

Farouk

Incident”

of

Egypt,

self-determination.

war,

met

coast

involved

King

would

history:

had

the

increased

forced

that

1948

of

to

attacked

became

February

to

May

intention

Seyed

4

they

right

spread

forces

British

they

Egyptian

because

crown.

the

the

1942

“The

country’s

It

Egypt

government

known

Party

War

Italian

prime

1950,

again

prime

matters

right.

C H A P T E R

This

put

act

proved

an

end

that

occupy

The

more

The

the

the

new

never

to

to

be

an

the

illusion.

British

did

interested

majority

E m E R g E n C E

October

agree

was

1951

Treaty

to,

of

and

unsuccessful

condence

in

of

not

T H E

the

1936,

British

o f

n A s s E R ’ s

government

but

it

troops

was

a

E g y P T,

19 14 – 19 5 2

boldly

unilateral

continued

to

Zone.

government

the

In

Anglo-Egyptian

Canal

gained

1 . 1 :

of

retaining

them

the

power

belonged

to

at

controlling

people.

than

the

The

the

streets

politicians

remedying

aristocracy

Egypt’s

or

were

and

appeared

problems.

from

pasha prosperous

families;

many

were

high-ranking

pashas

with

little

Pasha was an honoric title issued by sympathy

or

understanding

for

the

underprivileged.

Consequently

the Sultan; it could be hereditary or they

had

few

socio-economic

reforms

on

their

agenda.

Far

from

non-hereditary. Holders of the title redistributing

the

country’s

wealth,

many

saw

their

ofce

as

a

means

Pasha were often referred to as “ Your to

further

amass

personal

wealth.

The

failure

of

the

1950

Wafd

Excellency”. One of the rst measures government

was

also

the

failure

of

liberal

parliamentarianism

in

Egypt.

that the Free Ocers carried out was the Egyptians

were

losing

faith

in

voting

and

some

were

becoming

more

abolition of such honoric titles. receptive

to

authoritarian

ideas.

Violence and revolt

In

the

months

struggle”

with

the

various

British:

and

that

guerrilla

bands

soldiers.

When,

on

bloody

encounter

broke

on

in

in

calling

the

streets

of

1952,

Cairo

the

in

day

and

targeted

companies

the

burning

attacked

other

Cairo

and

saw

“popular

militants

Fedayeens

troops

town

following

looting

British

reached

British

A

and

struggle

in

looked

news

garrison

The

The

work

themselves

between

Cairo.

out.

to

erupted.

students,

government

January

Ismailia,

out

the

25

broke

refused

The

violence

workers,

ideologies

workers

British

police

followed,

encompassing

the

Canal

angry

more

way.

of

the

Egyptian

Zone,

riots

crowds

than

750buildings.

The

rioters

targeted

the

presence

the

opera

banks.

The

end

appoint

Instead,

aclear

of

day,

died

an

buildings

the

house,

26people

the

of

casinos,

known

and

era

cabinets

contender

than

capable

for

and

this

task

until

no

23

in

bars,

in

the

and

which

injured,

tried

stabilizing

and

included

cinemas,

were

King

went

symbolized

these

Saturday”,

500

The

of

somehow

Egypt;

clubs,

“Black

Egypt.

came

in

dance

as

more

in

politicians

that

foreigners

signalled

vain

to

situation.

one

emerged

as

July.

▲

The Rivoli cinema, Cairo, January 25th , 1952

13

1

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

TOK discussion

Below is the text of a leaet distributed by the Free Ocers

Everyone must understand that we are with the people

several days after the events of Black Saturday. Discuss the

now and for ever, and will answer only the call of the

strategy that the ocers are adopting by putting out this

nation … The nation is in danger. Take note of the

document. How useful is this document to the historian?

conspiracies that surround it. Rally around the Free

Ocers! Victory will come to you and to the people, of The presence of the army in the streets of Cairo is for

which you are an indivisible part! the purpose of foiling the conspiracies of traitors who

seek destruction and devastation. We will not accept

Source: Quoted in Joel Gordon, Nasser ’s Blessed

a blow against the people. We will not re one bullet

Movement: Egypt’s Free Ocers and the July Revolution,

against the people or arrest sincere nationalists …

The

Black

were

not

be

left

July,

airport,

is

with

the

able

no

to

of

Farouk

The

to

but

to

Free

and

by

act

the

pre-empt

Ofcers

and

senior

that

of

Free

the

about

ofcers

announce

for

were

an

Egypt

Both

the

troops

the

night

These

arrested,

on

such

and

King

They

of

as

the

actions,

some

the

the

of

opportunity

that

posts

station.

victory

of

elite.

disloyalty.

On

key

3000

their

was

Ofcers

King.

radio

people

ruling

this

them

occupied

the

the

the

fast:

arresting

involved

to

to

reached

exchange,

the

the

people

Egyptian

belonged

of

to

thus

arose

of

a

that

1952.

Egypt:

the

British.

era

the

Egypt

felt

group

of

was

as

In

the

liberal

neglected

much

words

had

Free

Ofcers

radio

for

had

to

the

the

weakness

of

Mehran

passed”.

The

legitimacy

its

rulers,

ofcers

they

to

the

caused

dominant

in

political

regime.

so

when

promise

rallied

and

Kamrava,

within

parliamentary

by

elements”,

factors

overtly

lacked

“ordinary”

mischief-making

responsible

as

the

time

also

a

was

Numerous

it

whose

King

undermining

of

for

factor

in

leadership

“an

alongside

people

“the

single

Ofcers

presence

society,

the

one

Free

of

of

ordinary

opportunity

end

news

the

shown

weakness

Ofcers

offensive

royalist

isolate

the

worked

Egyptian

to

only

the

people.

passivity

that

July,

the

proceed

unsympathetic

elite

not

Free

Vatikiotis,

Once

humiliation

King

the

choice

loyal

P .J.

to

dicult

and

In

on

had

highlighted

telephone

to

emergence

the

go

units

Egyptian

It

to

ofcers.

were

riots

also

missed.

according

200

but

prompted

about

were

22

facts

to

was

Saturday

angry

these

New York , Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992, page 51.

the

to

their

put

an

support.

The Fee Oce nd thei method

The

coup

had

been

outside

Many

about

d’état

little

the

politicians

“clean”

1952

14

relatively

al

in

Tin

that

had

explained

plan

of

the

were,

were

like

instability,

so

country

bloodless

According

Palace

Egypt

country’s

their

detailed

a

resistance.

Ras

people

their

was

far

of

been

this

was

to

Joel

killed

the

the

in

of

their

come.

Gordon,

the

of

act,

only

and

26

on

did

up

the

wanted

it

July.

fed

and

speech

though

there

soldiers

on

King,

They

short

even

two

angry

their

country.

Sadat’s

indeed,

gunre

ofcers,

weakness

Anwar

because,

scattered

young

running

past.

signicance

what

to

event

to

23

not

July

offer

a

C H A P T E R

1 . 1 :

T H E

E m E R g E n C E

o f

n A s s E R ’ s

E g y P T,

19 14 – 19 5 2

L Ta

Self-management and communication skills

Read the following text of the speech broadcast by Anwar

patriotism. It is certain that all Egypt will meet this

Sadat on the radio on 23 July 1952. Extract from it the

news with enthusiasm and will welcome it. As for those

reasons he gives for why the Free Ocers staged their coup

whose arrest we saw t from among men formerly

d’état. List them in a column. In a second column, list what

associated with the army, we will not deal harshly with

Sadat promises the Free Ocers will do. In your opinion, is

them, but will release them at the appropriate time.

the speech aggressive or not? I assure the Egyptian people (army) that the entire army

Don’t forget to back up your statements with evidence

today has become capable of operating in the national

from the document .

interest and under the rule of the constitution apart

from any interests of its own. I take this opportunity Egypt has passed through a critical period in her

to request that the people never permit any traitors to recent history characterized by bribery, corruption,

take refuge in deeds of destruction or violence because and the absence of governmental stability. All of

these are not in the interest of Egypt. Should anyone these were factors that had a large inuence on the

behave in such ways, he will be dealt with forcefully army. Those who accepted bribes and were thus

in a manner such as has not been seen before and his inuenced caused our defeat in the Palestine War.

deeds will meet immediately the reward for treason. The As for the period following the war, the mischief-

army will take charge with the assistance of the police. making elements have been assisting one another,

I assure our foreign brothers that their interests, their and traitors have been commanding the army.

personal safety, “their souls”, and their property are

They appointed a commander who is either ignorant safe, and that the army considers itself responsible for

or corrupt. Egypt has reached the point, therefore, of them. God is the guardian of success.

having no army to defend it. Accordingly, we have

Source: Steven A. Cook, The Struggle for Egypt: from Nasser undertaken to clean ourselves up and have appointed

to Tahrir Square, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012, to command us men from within the army whom

page 11–12. we trust in their ability, their character, and their

The

movement

supporting

the

Second

The

the

nationalists

the

They

and

Ideologically,

Some

and

were

they

there

also

this

men

Islam

as

as

revivalist

of

by

their

Islamic

in

revival

of

the

of

Arab

but

After

nationalism.

protested

against

powers

establishment

last

into

change.

foreign

not

of

a

in

their

Jewish

least,

by

state

the

leaders.

diverse:

large

number

organization

1928.

principle

people

the

who

the

and,

road;

the

coerce

women

remained

favoured

guiding

a

Palestine

established

a

and

or

welcomed

domination

opposition

a

been

angered

knew

ofcers

persuade

had

young

and

to

Egyptians

incompetence

Brotherhood,

used

Most

War

were

chose

army

needed

presence

territory

weakness

●

barely

putsch.

World

continued

countries.

in

the

Its

to

leader

of

known

Hassan

re-establish

students

as

al

the

Muslim

Banna

dignity,

pride,

and

independence.

●

Others

the

opted

industrial

of

movement,

need

Egypt’s

●

Finally

a

closer

but

among

major

autonomy

there

were

the

in

in

communism.

National

movement

and

1947

and

and

spread

those

who

the

The

days

supporters

by

a

a

Curiel,

means

of

mainly

signicant

ofcers.

Henri

as

were

number

This

emphasized

to

restore

justice.

believed

system.

had

army

reforms

social

turbulent

also

led

The

Liberation

younger

socio-economic

parliamentary

existence

to

for

students

established

for

reformed

into

ideas

Movement

workers,

followers

the

for

Democratic

in

achieving

Wafd

after

Party,

the

First

change

which

World

through

had

War,

come

and

15

1

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

its

leader

Saad

disillusioned

after

1945

with

other

Egypt

in

needed

the

was

Zaghlul

by

the

there

was

post-war

an

institution

that

the

forces.

The

Free

armed

Ofcers

most

history.

Gamal

change

in

the

Faluja

of

was

on

the

major

superior

As

majority

their

rst

corrupt

–

principles

but

Egypt

for

British

of

nine

the

Farouk,

and

for

and

were

31

not

Nasser’s

economically

were

when

the

division,

from

to

the

the

loss

battleeld.

they

Israel

blamed

come

as

terms,

single

over

and

had,

a

been

unprepared”.

one

was

–

had

own

task

forced

against

which

politicians,

unanimous

old

his

a

it

The

Egypt’s

had

the

war

what

who

of

sensitive

defeat,

we

such

retreat

on

represent

ideas;

ofcers

years

when

1948

ranks

fruition.

out

years

to

were

system,

joined

of

to

British

and

the

use

which

did

18

forced

The

the

to

young

particularly

ofcers,

had,

ideas

carrying

the

many

the

domination.

shortage

was

when

was

Wafdists

turbulent

1918,

24

warfare.

and

no

diplomatically

battle

they

in

were

young

Ofcers

politically

to

they

they

a

Free

where

reform

the

into

of

Though

accepted

western

those

capable

army,

hierarchy

setback:

the

King

of

bring

group

born

both

these

army

pushed

Ideologically,

pride,

of

seemingly

signed,

on

soldiers,

younger

from

during

Israeli

experience

personal

“duped

was

had

when

itself

age

ideals.

who

Egypt

would

secret

of

Nasser,

Treaty

country’s

the

a

come

Abdel

a

had

that

presented

government

of

Pocket.

their

For

of

face

free

period

were

part,

Anglo-Egyptian

a

to

those

politicians

revival

institution

was

the

a

nationalists

one

for

represented

party’s

the

the

set

of

need

to

absolute

necessity

leave.

The army: a legitimate institution to lead?

Similar

models

appeared

ofcers

What

The

in

had

made

fact

the

with

the

world

done.

political

was

soldiers

of

which

who

and

At

a

distanced

time

a

it

a

such

a

bridge

very

position

This

of

recent

of

from

–

the

to

be

lead

able

that

–

the

the

unlike

ordinary

lead

the

can

get

King’s

as

a

and

the

apparent

The

every

elite

through

its

things

whole;

rest

to

country

exert

attractive.

political

people

its

attuned

could

the

and

had

of

opposition?

was

and

country

the

it

nation

soldiers

this

they

and

forces

group

through

to

particularly

a

government.

warfare,

years

of

between

to

armed

1949,

disciplined

represented

regions

the

in

institution

meant

feature

popular

themselves

institution

organized,

this

of

There,

overthrown

technology

orders.

made

ranks

“modern”

in

is

different

built

when

the

are

nation.

capable

a

the

Syria.

of

army

its

sector

society,

and

their

the

King,

wealth

status.

was

Soldiers

put

army

as

and

legitimate

instability

and

them

d’état

was

obey

from

This

made

social

army

a

came

society.

–

authority

conscripted

a

within

country,

modern

An

soldiers

of

coup

army

change.

The

a

Arab

army

the

authority:

absence

16

the

modern

towards

opposition

staged

that

familiarity

of

another

In

of

Egypt

was

institution

courageous

the

words

action

framework

and

of

gave

love

Nasser

[because

separating

suffering

that

its

it

shame

hope

their

members

a

to

“[the

force

a

humiliation,

promised

country;

himself,

provides]

and

and

they

army

a

are

is]

the

the

concentrated

certain

extent

the

better

future.

pride

only

force

within

from

the

of

C H A P T E R

continual

the

very

had

full

conict

heart

of

between

the

condence

decisive

T H E

individuals

people,

in

1 . 1 :

whose

themselves,

E m E R g E n C E

and

classes,

members

a

force

a

o f

force

trusted

equipped

n A s s E R ’ s

drawn

one

and

19 14 – 19 5 2

from

another

capable

E g y P T,

and

of

swift

action”.

Ne, the emein lede

Of

the

stood

was

the

nine

out

core

as

born

the

in

had

his

in

recalled

when

the

they

the

about

Not

one

was

The

the

military

for

a

constantly

in

the

and

as

“Egypt

capital

socially

great

had

and

for

renegotiated

the

Canal

instead

who

of

and

“joined

of

but

acceded

a

career

him

the

in

Nasser.

delegations

the

had

together

were

brought

unrest.

reconrming

politicians

the

of

security

political

1936

to

He

enthusiasm”

1929

causing

working

Cairo

young

safeguard

treaty

Zone,

of

had

streets

a

Academy

him

given

to

the

politically.

the

Depression

problems,

cadets

opened

Military

also

Nasser

entered

rst

that

offered

excitement

“unite

Great

social

the

had

the

1936

Nasser

clerk,

and

among

had

and

The

he

the

of

this

as

was

instability,

by

the

Egyptians”

interests

his

an

political

pragmatic

strong

of

both

Abduh’s

as

and

were

for

ghting

the

throne

therefore

by

external

more

in

a

outraged

rivalry

to

in

good

of

1936,

overowing

an

as

much

As

opportunistic.

that

by

politicians.

Kamil’s

Egypt

matured.

country

–

the

reformism.

power.

also

of

Mustafa

Islamic

opposed

views

leadership

was

internal

attracted

Mohammad

for

more

importance

hesitant

the

and

Abdel

postal

in

Attending

town

to

a

was

Party

to

in

progressed,

conspiratorial,

the

He

eye-opener

of

of

demonstrations”

presence

well

serving

army

in

son

Alexandria,

leaders

Farouk,

solution,

as

an

an

days

witnessing

military

nationalism

classes.

experience

power

old.

of

Gamal

agitation.

Nasser,

British

proposed

King

years

political

Looking

gain

The

Wafd

home

The

British

Ofcers,

1937.

the

Living

and

presence

to

country.

16

in

country”.

the

his

was

the

in

by

social

“the

on

Free

group.

Cairo

his

economic

had

young

as

“marched

mother

only

with

all

1930s

time

calling

another

their

in

leave

widen

late

major

only

their

to

the

the

passed

to

to

of

of

neighbourhood

expectations.

this

students”

of

law

him

opportunity

Cairo

the

Academy

allowed

beyond

a

Academy

from

Military

leader

Bakos,

Military

benet

members

that

Both

was

Nasser’s

He

He

career

became

came

suffered

to

from

more

see

weak

leaders.

Conspiracy to rule

Contrary

methods

secret

to

cell

rally

either

the

of

the

by

leaets.

of

to

used

support

word

Given

objective

young

junior

the

junior

propaganda

Their

tradition

by

of

in

ofcers.

inside

or

secretive

to

the

nature

reach

new

days

army,

the

of

of

beyond

classes,

middle

opposition

the

and

class

they

Their

Egypt,

As

worked

activities,

of

a

the

small

and

clandestinely

message

distribution

their

the

in

conspiratorial.

ofcers.

through

early

professional

This

were

like-minded

these

was

workers,

of

parliamentary

Ofcers

ofcers

mouth

the

of

Free

was

passed

pamphlets

there

was

on

and

little

use

movement.

army

to

the

“new

government

made

up

the

middle

ofcials,

section

of

as

the

class”:

well

as

Egyptian

17

1

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

population

who,

and

in

that

their

the

foreign

committee

their

in

disenfranchised

were

powers.

1949

message

for

underground

being

felt

eyes,

to

and

corrupt

The

Free

within

arrest

the

too

but

the

older

closely

Ofcers

gradually,

change

avoid

by

and

formed

extremely

ranks

because,

generation

attached

as

of

a

of

to

the

palace

coordinating

cautiously,

army.

soldiers,

politicians,

the

they

spread

They

ran

stayed

the

risk

of

court-martialled.

A pragmatic approach to politics

The

Free

ofcer

his

as

was

a

their

bold

Ofcers

and

a

name

move

the

victory,

the

the

and

the

the

by

time

this

they

Free

into

the

organization.

He

was

gure

among

the

a

in

means

destiny.

for

any

they

the

an

kept

23

Club.

prestigious

and

the

public.

July

a

more

credibility

presented

club,

the

the

won

an

a

they

a

palace

started

Neghib

was

himself.

Neghib

of

senior

because

General

This

King

coup:

and

although

and

y ounger

the

a

danger

were

This

was

landslide

realized

investigation

utmost

importance,

temporary.

Altho ug h

Na ss e r,

they

such

the

Neghib,

their

Ofcers’

army

Ofcers,

the

Ind e e d ,

the

existence

fragile

e nd.

Ab d e l

for

potential

be

co up,

he

a pp ea r ed

ofc er s

pr ov e d

to

of

be

a pp oin t m e nt

of

to

t he

t he

be

the

l e ad ing

move m e n t ,

tru e

N e g h ib

d ec ide r s

in

of

c on r m ed

the

pragma ti s m.

ideology.

contact

Muslim

a

boosted

1952

of

the

their

Free

to

of

triggered

were

opportunism,

single

elite

made

the

to

July

Mohammad

This

In

contending

run

Gamal

movement’s

As

long

the

particular

Egypt’s

Ofcers

role

in

trusted.

indirectly

the

war.

Committee

traditional

that

proved

General

1948

public

to

because,

rst

Neghib’s

▲

of

candidate

challenging

also

recruited

hero

the

Free

Ofcers

Realizing

with

Brothers,

all

the

that

three

Left,

did

their

not

tendencies

and

the

conne

strength

themselves

was

within

in

the

Parliamentary

to

numbers,

opposition

–

reformists–

and

Mohammad Neguib (left) and Gamal Abdel

Nasser (right)

made

This

a

each

allowed

wide

all

the

and

different

of

was,

aspiration

absence

was

d’état

in

coup

of

a

the

used

In

by

fact,

by

as

left

a

as

a

years

to

handful

way

need

and

recalled

to

come

of

revolution,

that

young

the

to

they

the

the

were

use

a

of

his

by

it

a

have

only

a

history

to

force

the

had

them.

inborn

would

ofcers

days

idea

be

of

their

be

ideas

it

the

sole

authoritarian.

nor

a

violent.

The

already

Free

been

“seeds

of

suppressed

Given

that

its

with

were

The

–

the

followed

new

rewritten

would

maintain

propaganda.

generation”.

clearer

Revolution”.

or

politics.

however,

coercive

that

before

in

and

forces

truly

neither

of

contacts

power,

be

“were

former

was

in

platform

book

their

armed

proved

brand

appropriated

Once

ideologues

military

“July

and

upon

in

us

started

both

their

position

through

they

Ofcers

for

programme,

Egypt

ideological

Ofcers

stepped

legacy

promoting

themselves.

Free

nationalists

clear

their

groups,

for

this

the

were

Furthermore,

Free

little

Nasser

that

the

popular

18

of

broaden

seemingly

constructed

they

opposition

that

in

had

revolution”

to

support.

policy.

methods

Ofcers

though

supporters

clear

initiators

coup

of

recruited

There

as

them

range

became

The

feel

the

trajectory.

and

the

It

military

remembered

as

a

1.2

Nasser ’s consolidation of power,

1952–1954

Conceptual understanding

Key questions

➔

How and why did the 23 July coup d’état become the July Revolution?

➔

Which groups opposed the Free Ocers and how did the Ocers tackle them?

➔

What were the consequences for Egypt of the manner in which the Free

Ocers tackled their opposition?

➔

How did Nasser maintain his popularity in the rst few years following their

seizure of power?

Key concepts

➔

Signicance

➔

Consequences

Maintaining leadership

The

“popular

apparent

prime

Public

struggle”

that

disintegration

ministers

opinion

were

of

had

given

shifted

started

party

the

further

in

politics.

task

and

of

January

Between

restoring

further

away

1952

underlined

January

order.

from

and

None

the

July,

three

succeeded.

entrusting

party

just tyrant politicians

and

more

towards

purication

( al

tahrir)

of

the

entire

A tyrant is another word for a dictator system.

The

situation,

some

started

to

believe,

needed

a

“ just

tyrant”

or an authoritarian ruler. A “just tyrant”, (al-musta’bid

al

adil),

“a

strongman

who

could

stabilize

and

reform

also called a benevolent dictator, is a the

political

order

without

facing

the

constraints

of

party

politics

and

type of authoritarian ruler who claims to parliamentary

democracy”.

When

news

reached

the

people

that

a

group

“benet” the people by ending chaos and of

young

ofcers

controlled

the

city,

many

thought

that

they

had

found

establishing order. their

“just

However

power

easy

were

were

political

student

movement

wealth,

land

were

the

ruling

trade

There

more

the

back

to

were

the

had

not

an

to

Civil

a

have

and

active

mention

society

foreign

capital,

those

a

supported

the

a

and

a

had

high

redistribution

Ofcers

of

distribution

welcomed

Free

platform on which political and ideological

freedom

better

“Egypt was the cradle of the Arab media

and press ... By 1882, it was the main

artists,

and

Thinking and social skills

and

feminist

press,

and

Free

of

infrastructure

press,

existed

who

the

weaknesses

developed

expectations:

Among

been,

maintenance

apparent

uncensored

economic

had

may

extremely

1920s.

from

of

Egypt

poets,

reforms.

who

spite

an

rights,

also

operation

consolidation

In

class,

the

autonomy

Fellahin

this

that

and

civil

agrarian

poor

of

unions,

writers,

dating

through

stage

realize

expectations:

expression.

of

of

to

complicated.

parties,

activists,

political

rst

more

incompetence

of

the

soon

L TA

Ofcers

tyrant”.

of

The rst indigenous Cairene papers were

Jurnal al Khedivu (The Khedive’s Journal)

of 1827 and al Waqa’ii al Misriyya (The

Egyptian Events) in 1828.”

change

because

movements propagated their views ...

of

Ilan Pappé, The Modern Middle East,

their

proximity

to

ordinary

people

and

their

ability

to

empathize

with

London: Routledge, 2005, pp. 186–7

them.

Finally,

there

were

societal

expectations:

elimination

of

corruption

What does such a long tradition of free and

privileges

that

had

barred

the

route

towards

social

mobility

and

and independent press say about a gender

equality.

All

in

all,

the

Free

Ofcers

had

a

lot

on

their

plate,

if

country? they

were

to

satisfy

everyone.

19

1

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

L TA

Furthermore,

in

the

expression

“a

just

tyrant”,

was

the

emphasis

on

“just”

Research and communication skills or

“tyrant”?

Huda Shar ’arwi (1879–1947) is

the

considered Egypt’s rst feminist. In 1910

they

she opened schools for girls and in 1919

country?

Was

military

the

come

return

to

Was

tyrant’s

to

stay

barracks?

this

or,

job

once

Were

merely

a

over

the

they

coup

once

“justice”

reforms

the

d’état

were

vanguard

or

a

fully

was

restored?

carried

or

the

edged

out,

new

Had

would

rulers

of

the

revolution?

she organized the largest women’s

L TA

anti-British demonstrations. In that year

Thinking and research skills

she was also elected president of the

Wafdist Women’s Central Committee but

later resigned after becoming disappointed

1

Research the two terms “coup d’état” and “revolution”.

2

What do you think is the main dierence between the two?

3

Why do you think Nasser preferred to use the expression the “July Revolution”?

in Wafdist politics, especially as they

related to women. In 1923 she founded

the Egyptian Feminist Union and published Nasser’s

own

version

of

events,

as

presented

in

his

book

The

Philosophy

the feminist magazine L’Egyptienne. of

the

Revolution,

is

characteristic

of

the

ofcial

story:

“I

had

imagined

our

The feminist tradition continued into role

to

be

a

commando

advance-guard

lasting

only

a

few

hours,

after

the early Nasserist era: when the Par ty which

the

Holy

March

of

the

whole

nation

(...)

would

follow

(...)

But

Reorganization Law was passed in 1952, the

reality

I

faced

after

July

23rd

took

me

by

surprise.(...)

The

masses

did

of the 22 political par ties that registered come.

But

they

came

struggling

in

scattered

groups(...)

It

was

only

then

to par ticipate in the new society to come, that

I

realized,

with

an

embittered

heart,

that

the

vanguard’s

mission

had

three were feminist par ties. not

Research Huda Shar ’awi and the feminist

movement in Egypt. Are you surprised

ended

this

at

version

their

that

as

power

hour

true,

over

but

the

the

had

fact

is

just

that

following

begun”.

the

two

Whether

Ofcers

did

or

aim

not

to

we

accept

consolidate

years.

to see pioneers such as Shar ’awi in To

consolidate

their

position,

the

Free

Ofcers

had

to

use

a

mixture

of

1920’s Egypt? Why do you think you are methods

–

force

and

propaganda

as

well

as

legal

means.

They

had

two

surprised? extremely

1

They

difcult

needed

reformists

had

not

had

capable

Since

the

made

been

easy

full

remain

few

groups

Brothers

Free

–

be

–

who

Ofcers’

and

popular

their

and

lives

the

had

Left,

since

movement,

to

the

Liberal

supported

However,

prepared

been

reasons

kept.

so

appear

and

independence

had

the

political

act

change

these

they

groups

needed

ruthlessly

if

to

they

them.

changing

well

one,

predecessors

what

the

them

of

them:

demonstrations.

of

by

of

of

The

many

in

offering

1922,

the

eyes

them

many

breaking

of

a

the

had,

masses

future.

promises

these

governments

of

better

had

promises

in

the

been

had

past,

failed

survive.

knew

an

the

of

nominal

but

one

in

part

to

of

the

Muslim

control

threatened

They

to

been

tight

ahead

satisfy

the

participated

felt

“I

to

and

and

keep

2

tasks

people

and

from

that

the

it

beginning

would

used

to

offer

liked

to

hear.”

cost

people

that

our

much

of

nothing

mission

our

but

would

popularity.

dreams,

and

not

(...)

utter

be

Our

only

After the coup: the rst few months

For

the

too

abrupt.

coup,

of

a

rst

Egyptians

civilian.

aristocracy

20

few

months

Although

Ali

and

were

a

lawyer

the

armed

told

Maher,

a

after

the

that

coup

forces

political

government

conservative

who

the

had

had

would

politician,

served

in

changes

successfully

a

remain

in

member

previous

were

staged

a

the

of

not

military

hands

the

governments,

C H A P T E R

became

asked

the

King

monarchy

the

place

Prime

and

of

and

ministries

Egypt

Most

was

have

infant

its

King.

the

of

deceptive.

of

The

to

these

“as

arena

in

the

titles

of

of

and

of

the

o f

to

the

in

new

income,

parties

the

a

“rule”

suggested

of

19 5 2 – 19 5 4

Maher

coup,

political

representatives

P o w E R ,

remained

formed

bey,

on

law,

Egypt

was

week

called

the

son.

Council

pasha

the

with

his

rst

and

C o N s o l i d A T i o N

old

and

regime.

renewal.

Free

months

Ofcers

to

corrupt

Free

of

Regency

ranks

pioneers”

its

conformity

favour

reforms,

early

The

N A s s E R ’ s

Within

civil

tax

their

road

project.

come

full

three-member

“purge”

on

In

abdicate

abolished

accounts

political

to

inheritance

to

long-term

to

a

the

government

prot,

Minister.

Farouk

1 . 2 :

agree

bring

stability

elements.

Ofcers’

on

seemed,

the

as

to

absence

Nasser’s

Egypt

Appearances

Executive

and

can,

Committee,

of

a

account

to

stated,

clean

the

however,

referring

to

be

itself ▲

as

the

Revolutionary

Command

Council

(RCC),

remained

The Revolutionary Command Council.

behind Sitting behind the desk, is Mohammad

the

scenes

and

indicated

the

way

forward

to

the

civilian

as

“the

government. Neguib (the Chairman) and to his right,

Gordon

referred

to

this

command

council

hidden

hand”

and is Nasser (the Vice Chairman)

stated:

“Those

clenched

in

a

who

dealt

directly

with

the

ofcers

found

that

hand

often

st”.

The elimination of rivals

The

in

absence

two

because

of

the

feel

they,

status

the

eliminate

had

high

wanted

the

to

three

In

Kafr

al

Delta

August

in

workers

a

Many

30

“We

Left

the

set

the

up

decided

that

those

new

had

The

of

led

to

the

a

textile

for

a

However,

Liberal

turned

Instead,

the

on

the

in

Nile

July

treason

was

situation

was

four

ended,

executed.

the

communist

coup,

found

workers.

and

by

and

the

confrontation,

followed

arrest

party.

to

make

an

Neghib.

Liberation

(DMNL),

consequently

dictatorship.

nature

the

they

arrested

wrote

the

bloody

the

high

the

change

Ofcers

with

tried

with

most

to

reformists

was

strike

was

the

the

the

the

the

for

run

of

supported

supported

outlawed

Ofcers,

military

In

Nasser

disposal

Once

This

National

Free

their

municipality

had

and

riot”,

few

part

not

pluralism.

demands.

an

deal

of

workers

army.

a

it

were

did

had

alongside

the

and

injured.

to

had

country.

who

the

at

explained

years,

that

and

means

Left,

two

those

King

type

be

support

who

confrontation

centre

court

started

Movement

the

rst

Those

next

who

to

apparently

protested

convicted

to

the

this

sentences.

way

of

their

with

belonging

had

as

by

quo.

the

could

chose

ignore

their

workers,

were

only

supported

government

of

rivals,

military

prison

of

Those

reject

industrial

leaders

who

to

d’état

they

every

had

hundreds

special

the

use

who

battle

and

accused

Democratic

that

a

exception

response

pitched

received

people

of

a

killed

course

government’s

strike

status

because

future

it

coup

active

practically

would

the

Egypt.

alleged

more

example

The

in

the

political

a

the

supporters.

major

favourable

were

army

of

1952

a

the

Those

in

new

northern

themselves

Two

the

end

to

forces

potential

Dawwar,

expected

the

rule

in

yet

previous

participate

Muslims,

Left.

(with

Ofcers’

politically

passive

chose

expectations.

the

to

Ironically,

politicians),

their

to

were

wanted

Ofcers

authoritarian

the

who

remained

previously

prominent

of

too,

quo

Free

country

Of

resistance

Those

threatened.

and

of

of

ways.

a

party

of

the

denounced

Furthermore,

when

21

1

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

Al

Misri,

a

leading

surrounded

threatened

Free

the

to

Ofcers

Left

United

in

7

of

64

day

General

departure

not

indicated

implementer

next

the

two

to

of

the

parties

of

with

their

politicians,

In

by

the

launching

arrested.

100

the

at

every

the

the

submit

law

The

from

The

political

accused

political

leader

of

Furthermore,

highest

of

22

for

The

rst

the

The

the

in

of

proposed

the

arrest

what

still

Maher’s

regime

but

were

rather

the

helped

a

the

them

to

the

He

with

Free

described

resign

before

way

to

the

to

an

were

and

the

the

fate

in

guiltier

of

need

the

for

its

of

was

and

The

the

then

Interior

or

to

to

to

try

those

a

to

other

list

of

whose

crimes

was

had

forced

recertication

each

their

party

to

leaders.

any

party

ofcers

and

“to

who

Law

for

suppress

or

Neghib,

apply

required

and

interest”

practices

according

up

process

nances

public

set

Reorganization

The

whose

included

misdemeanours.

protect

the

people

charlatanism”.

the

the

Wafd

party

the

old

Party,

took

court,

court’s

order

the

example

people

Tribunal

show

rid

younger

their

...

Party

Ofcers.

set

of

decreed

opposition

partly

bureaucrats

to

it

the

Ofcers’

curb

was

hundreds

“800

tried

and

government

own;

was

Laws

move

namely

ofce,

increase

allowed

later

reformists,

took

replace

new

its

Party

dissolve

the

law,

to

This

ofcers”.

tribunal”

Interior.

corrupt

administrative

waiting

parties.

of

the

suspected

society.

funds.

in

new

body;

favourable

the

campaign”

Ministry

“not

the

second

and

were

were

from

following

“Ali

Reform

included

police

guilty

platforms,

the

were

of

of

to

of

these

guiltiest

public

parties

purpose

and

least

“corruption

authorized

objectives

anyone

level

Ministry

its

the

the

of

to

Maher,

Liberal

helped

be

campaign”

“cleansing

abused

political

from

a

force,

the

leaders

to

the

free

nationalists

those

The

Cook,

government

rst

objective,

the

War,

initiatives”.

campaign”.

likely

Neghib,

“the

...

The

December

allegedly

more

with

ordered

men.

under

Agrarian

population,

second

to

air

way:

discharged

renewal

In

this

Ofcers

replaced

from

the

the

“cleansing

“cleansing

navy,

Revolution”.

laws:

rule,

policymaking

Neghib

as

and

Cold

being

opposition

Steven

desired

came

the

Whereas

were

According

army,

as

in

palace

governments

Ofcers’

rural

a

For

on

credibility

Free

Ofcers

older-generation

of

a

following

were

of

who

pursuit

soon

the

guise

Free

...

Free

Law.

the

the

colluding

themselves

Nasser’s

of

and

Left

repressed.

former

independent

important

Reorganization

popularity

the

of

of

army

the

context

Ofcers

resigned

night

and

challenge

As

course

the

vehicles

between

the

Their

severely

Maher

That

that

the

prided

government.

an

the

Party.

extremely

under

be

potential

Wafd

of

civilian

Given

ruthlessly.

the

Ali

Laws.

who

were

incident,

armoured

relationship

accuse

politicians

Neghib

a

supposed

The

1952

Reform

constituted

In

the

with

recover.

to

reacted

sympathies

prominent

The

Ofcers,

questioned.

September

Agrarian

never

reported

ofces

down.

started

The

inuence,

being

it

would

Egypt

communist

On

newspaper,

newspaper

shut

States.

foreign

was

the

Al

the

matter

thus

ruling,

was

Nahhas,

thus

refused

up

with

challenging

the

Free

abolished

the

the

Ofcers

and

to

the

obey

the

State

law’s

new

Council,

legality.

outlawed

blame

law.

for

all

the

Instead

political

this

was

C H A P T E R

put

“It

on

has

the

political

become

reassert

themselves

announced

that

the

reforming

compared

to

banning

of

three-year

movement

(Hai’at

for

Secretary

The

of

new

in

the

had

the

aims

parties

transition

resisted

personal

dangerous

A

of

month

was

to

government.

party

times

later,

in

in

had

...

nation’s

February,

become

P o w E R ,

19 5 2 – 19 5 4

purication.

interests

our

o f

a

seek

to

history”,

Nasser

“minor

declared

objective

revolution”.

accompanied

and

the

would

C o N s o l i d A T i o N

voluntary

and

system

our

period

attached

which

N A s s E R ’ s

the

Free

the

Ofcers,

mobilize

Nasser

by

launching

the

became

announcement

of

the

people

the

a

new

political

Liberation

and

rally

Liberation

Rally

their

Rally

General.

Its

going

that

that

parliamentary

Rally

aim

was

developments,

reforms;

us

these

wider

directly

Liberation

factories.

not

the

al-Tahrir),

support

to

government.

the

The

a

parties

clear

1 . 2 :

to

end

they

planned

to

it

after

to

create

became

a

series

seemingly

a

open

branches

civilian

apparent

of

base

that

to

stay

in

campuses

the

the

socio-political

planned

on

for

RCC.

Ofcers’

and

power

and

With

in

these

mission

was

socio-economic

more

permanently.

The Liberation Rally’s 11 ar ticles

The Liberation Rally presented Egyptians with an 11-point

programme of objectives:

1

complete and unconditional withdrawal of foreign

troops from the Nile Valley

2

self-determination for the Sudan

3

a new constitution expressing the fundamental

aspirations of the Egyptian people

4

a social system in which all citizens shall be entitled

to protection against the ravages of unemployment,

illness, and old age – i.e. a welfare state

5

an

economic

distribution

human

new

6

system

of

designed

wealth,

resources,

full

and

to

encourage

exploitation

the

maximum

of

a

fair

natural

and

investment

of

capital

▲

The Liberation Rally Hai’at al Tahrir Cairo, January 1953

8

friendly relations with all Arab states

9

a regional pact designed to increase the inuence of

a political system in which all citizens shall be equal

before the law and in which freedom of speech,

assembly, press and religion shall be guaranteed

the Arab League

within the limits of the law

7

an educational system designed to develop a sense

10

friendly relations with all friendly powers

11

rm adherence to the principles of the United Nations,

of social responsibility by impressing youth with its

duties as well as its rights and with the overriding with special emphasis on their application to subject

need to increase production in order to raise Egypt’s peoples.

standard of living

23

1

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

The

July

even

go

to

a

coup

was

presented

through

on

his

two

class

conict

and

of

a

as

individuals

political

revolution

forget

the

should

There

(...)

no

had

been

project.

be

of

a

in

realizing

dissension

and

of

that

revolution

of

moral

carrying

a

(...)

we

out

not

an

to

Unity,

(...)

carry

as

well

One

united

forget

–

success

classes

revolutions

more

as

(...)

the

demanded

been

and

coined

for

stand

earth

right

revolution

justice

among

Nasser

on

their

upheaval.

and

two

had

social

factors

social]

the

larger

be

a

should

values,

people

recover

social

social

[the

Revolution”.

“All

to

discord

a

which

much

would

other

despot

fundamental

Ofcers,

into

revolution

foundation

to

“Nasserism”

to

are

“July

of

demanded

the

transformed

exported

ends

the

Revolution”:

political

dignity

alternative

the

hands

another

lost

becoming

of

(...)

the

political]

And

“duty”

Soon,

a

the

(...)

form

the

to

ultimately

revolution

restore

was

could

that

[the

original

from

co-operation

past.

The

way

revolutions:

self-government

solidarity

its

“Philosophy

and

that

the

we

past.

together.”

out

ambitious

ideological

a

coup,

long-term

model

that

states.

Rewriting the constitution

In

of

the

February,

rewriting

regime

ready:

a

a

legal

Egypt

republic.

world’s

Five

the

abolished

“The

became

created

In

drum

see

In

the

of

all

Muslim

the

been

when

there

member

as

the

and

to

pose

To

a

the

Brothers

months

a

large

and

did

to

not

come,

they

use

of

in

move

Free

Ofcers

as

the

sole

In

in

this

became

the

president.

Prime

was

Throughout

was

for

started

Upper

the

potential

of

of

and

Egypt

people

the

to

the

had

July

and

a

However,

rule

started

commemorating

government

The

great

use

Nasser

coup,

groups,

Brothers

of

arrested

banning

On

deal

heavy-handed

the

rival:

support

Brothers

authoritarian

organization.

to

the

government.

the

a

and

Ofcers

two

Muslim

faced

political

Muslim

the

organization.

the

loyalty

the

ceremonies

process,

of

a

towards

the

resorted

leader

and

government.

and

preceding

the

violent,

their

new

was

being,

Deputy

Delta

deal

between

of

Ofcers

for

the

Most

years

1954

for

the

campaign

between

been

their

support

society

the

great

the

turned

in

charge

the

rst

Guidance

opportunity

further

January

propaganda.

emerged

had

new

government.

remained

a

collusion

banned

the

in

King

time

Egypt’s

as

in

group.

clear.

popularity

Zone

end

of

did,

of

to

the

still

very

Brothers

and

spectrum

as

dramatic

Canal

an

relationship

never

started

new

also

enjoyed

Brothers

When

the

however,

survive

rivals

24

in

was

well

publicity

travelled

there

still

deal

uniformity,

problems.

Muslim

from

Muslim

Ofcers

killed

party,

in

Free

the

great

the

as

the

the

National

little-known

The

Muslim

a

It

of

in

put

give

declaration

infant

for

Neghib,

Interior

successful

measures,

was

the

the

became

ministers

Ministry

Ofcers

who

deposed

was

would

constitutional

General

promote

a

still

country.

the

of

support.

this

Ofcers

was

political

those

450

of

of

these

the

to

to

Free

Brothers,

Free

close

the

popular

throughout

and

of

the

became

gures

constitution

kingdom

wrote

new

December

members

spite

the

up

was

prominent

new

monarchy,

Ofcers

a

50

June

oldest

Minister

task

representatives

to

Free

the

and

of

The

By

republic”,

November

whose

November

its

world’s

youngest

Minister.

committee

framework.

prominent

Nasser

a

constitution.

of

the

of

the

contrary;

opposition

authoritarian

force

as

well

outmanoeuvred

movement.

rule.

as

his

C H A P T E R

1 . 2 :

N A s s E R ’ s

C o N s o l i d A T i o N

o f

P o w E R ,

19 5 2 – 19 5 4

Nasser triumphant

Following

appear

The

the

the

decision

within

the

“reluctant

resign

of

and

placed

Neghib

control.

The

The

to

the

resume

on

the

Nasser’s

victory,

was

his

retreat

a

given

in

all

political

for

panic.

As

Free

the

who

resigned

he

was

With

the

could

were

to

started

Prime

Neghib

out

accused

of

the

Brothers.

Alexandria

when

unscathed,

managed

among

soon

to

many

became

the

and

potential

a

and,

rival

as

whether

that

had

been

and

the

of

the

outcry

of

RCC

total

both

the

allowed

army.

Neghib

premiership.

as

On

President

republic”.

his

A

to

the

saw

at

him.

or

He

them

the

assassination

Muslim

over

and

that

were

caused

order.

in

It

Cairo,

saviours

17

his

kill

On

as

the

elimination

at

target

attempt

was

Brother

leaders.

when

arrest.

a

rally

and

Nasser.

Abdel

29

Neghib

November,

the

of

Support

April

house

to

the

accused

regressive,

On

of

Universities

sentences.

revolution

Mahmood

powers

elections

speaking

missed

“Let

its

resolution

until

turn

was

forward

announced

ofcers

under

now

dies,

gunman,

three

put

Nasser

speech:

lives

President

and

could

1954

as

once

resolution

cancelled.

was.

Neghib

put

censorship.

of

division

revolution.

prison

him

the

regime.

were

The

free

the

were

it

counter-

Nasser

spread

as

apparent

the

Nasser,

chaos

strict

long

It

this

the

number

way

remained

of

his

up

old

surrender

and

again

elections

for

rival,

elections

given

the

elections.

over

under

of

appearances

choosing

the

stir

exploited

setback

but

to

charges

restoring

RCC

once

public

to

red

he

on

Revolution”.

was

treason,

his

an

enjoying

having

activities

put

Nasser

The

of

system

in

the

the

October

execution

their

were

but

of

the

the

to

seeking

ranks

and

was

announcement

Egypt

nish

Brothers.

the

the

against

that

gunman

to

on

step

tried

way,

In

apparent

Muslim

arrests

wane

return

of

immediate

surveillance.

were

to

the

conspiring

another

Nasser

to

aim

Egyptian

and

Minister

dismissed,

Muslim

for

able

tight

to

to

for

political

announced

wanted

as

over

led

returned

arrested

Minister,

resume

Newspapers

mutiny

yet

called

party

for

communiqué,

and

to

criticized

Neghib

parliamentary

outmanoeuvre

The

him,

called

forced

over

Neghib

accused

the

like

the

1954.

old

under

RCC

of

a

were

were

with

calling

Neghib

the

people.

Neghib

one

end

July

him

were

to

be

While

to

Prime

resolution

23

brought

as

move

movements

incitement

for

Nasser

a

shall

and

back

have

started

Neghib,

short-lived.

tactical.

loyal

they

RCC

the

Ofcers

ordinary

ours

Hundreds

post

the

Choosing

March

that

been

In

parties

choosing

were

took

“I

called

within

Nasser

announced:

however,

a

dissent

General

others

resignation

importantly,

President.

appeared

his

The

on

protest

the

in

“proclaim

called

was

what

In

of

stood

those

and

views

Nasser

activities:

deceptive.

passed.

thus

had

back

resolution

was

was,

and

Neghib

March,

again

as

the

had

Nasser

arrest.

the

with

taken

that

environment.

between

was

severe

Neghib

victory

revolutionary

In

so

of

had

February

house

more

press

Nasser

23

Brothers,

starting

foreign

that

under

and,

post

ofce,

Nasser

political

the

On

Muslim

army,

undermining

understanding

Neghib’s

as

announcement

public

reaction

resuming

him

of

the

the

measures

Parliament.

accused

among

ban

of

dictator”,

authoritarian

reopening

to

ranks

will

Nasser,

He

go

Latif,

followed

of

in

is

one

on”.

It

belonged

by

Nasser’s

mass

last

eliminated.

25

1

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

The cult of the leader

Great

importance

Ofcers’

used

to

discipline

circumstances

who

and

his

had

control.

leader

Nasser

who

spoke

ordinary

Much

a

has

this

it

on

Free

rival,

rural

years

1954

the

he

the

one

Step

Egyptians

leader

As

for

the

Left

the

as

over

developing

elevated

would

he

Egypt,

was

the

reins

of

role

in

an

full

force

among

of

power,

personality

of

a

ordinary

was

members,

the

absolute

indeed,

to

just

clandestine

driving

cult

the

was,

out

Free

were

devotion

remain

and

not

the

the

a

to

the

they

original

inspired

taken

role:

whether

23

Nasser

on

their

can

the

or

July

this

of

charismatic

people:

well-known

Egyptian,

movement

whether

coup

to

put

second

the

become

insisted,

part

be

coup,

the

second

and

or

the

were

obtain

he

intended

Ofcers

the

on

was

an

the

from

were

own,

rst

simply

Revolution

or

authority?

The

concerned

July

their

total

forward.

he

in

as

over

and

but

no

also

In

would

ideological

him

the

“the

rest

basis

of

least

the

it

to

rests

other

This

which

less

Brothers

choice

but

the

of

all,

the

was

the

Left

the

a

and

far

the

words

revolution

itself:

–

Liberation

leaving

In

absence

Nasser

they

less

of

was

groups,

that

of

following

than

platform

them

British

of

was

was

its

it”.

the

dissent.

react

wide

the

RCC

challenged

to

of

opposition

meant

the

leader.

realized

main

made

tolerant

a

Neghib,

historical

to

them

their

upon

whose

up

by

personal

Mohammad

workers

secret

grown;

his

movements

enjoyed

for

had

only

whose

stood

factory

increasingly

grounding.

Muslim

had

not

hero

–

outmanoeuvred

Ofcers,

policy,

war

Wafd

ideological

process

not

Unlike

that

the

hypothesis,

Free

had

had

this

the

which

choice

world

as

condence

eliminated

popular

party

students

certainly

the

they

and

such

well

little

Nasser’s

successfully

revealed,

all

for

as

step,

ideological

nation,

26

–

among

by

compromise

the

as

Brotherhood,

being

sharing

the

plot

parties

nationalism.

strong

Had

nationalist

with

and

ideology

and

of

The

him

He

reached

Upper

about

whereas

of

Woodward,

slowly

of

this

and

authoritarian

senior-ranking

Muslim

Peter

so

had

political

as

Rally.

had

Ofcers

to

because

credited

within

soldiers,

existence.

was

Nasser

hypotheses

Nasser,

two

greater

of

life.

Ofcers,

two

Free

leader

as

...”.

change.

Free

Nasser

well

saidi

rural

partly

early

movement.

listeners

written

insurmountable

the

the

the

Ofcers.

also

status

his

preconceived

October

but

for

equation

Within

and

become

the

a

entirely

the

been

to

vehicle

was

a

and

Ofcers

if

of

because,

advantages

and

responded

daily

the

the

the

role

president,

of

Once

Egyptian

start

because

to

as

leader

enticed

like

references

the

Nasser

he

the

partly

obedience

When

leader,

to

was

movement’s

understood

Nasser.

infallible

and

ofcers.

fully

around

given

This

the

elected

fellow

“He

of

uncontested

they

was

movement.

they

were

them

patriotism

lacked

to

their

a

to

power

opponents

on

ruthlessly.

guiding

unable

amenable

When

a

their

such

loyalty

to

as

the

C H A P T E R

▲

1 . 2 :

N A s s E R ’ s

C o N s o l i d A T i o N

o f

P o w E R ,

19 5 2 – 19 5 4

Three military ocers, including Nasser, show an Egyptian citizen an angel trapped in a

storefront window. The angel is labeled “Freedom”. A smiling general says, “Didn’t you say

you wanted to see freedom? Here she is, sir, right in front of you.”

Finally,

with

in

very

turn

to

they

all

order

little

the

been

The

into

of

a

of

society

a

traps

repressed

much

by

by

Egypt

“the

the

come

would

army

and

of

monopoly

and

coup

go

of

as

but

of

be

for

by

source

the

use

of

the

the

1952

army

to

his

of

had

...”.

In

authoritarian

of

an

the

opposition

to

the

Ofcers

they

the

had

authoritarian

Free

years

of

he

colleagues”.

ruthlessly

In

essentially

the

also

biggest

that

remained

and

ofcer

can

moves:

the

the

authority.

rule

young

one

Nasser’s

junior

of

force

been

–

Neghib,

strength

their

this

memoirs

[his]

forces,

–

country

whims

of

armed

a

treatment

the

challenges

July

Nasser

Even

in

and

Nasser’s

the

of

pre-empt

them.

Nasser

led

on

to

admitted

el

whose

members

their

laid

Abd

would

opposition

Woodward,

would

As

he

success

governing

forces

authority,

for

that

in

opposition

government

force.

maintained

army

of

the

the

experience

“outmanoeuvred

rulerand

so

understand

Nasser’s

consequences

were

use

failure

fell

challenger

to

prior

a

the

words

takeover

come,

of

not

leaders

institution

of

the

remain.

27

1.3

Nasser ’s policies, 1952–1970

Conceptual understanding

Key questions

➔

How successful were Nasser ’s domestic policies from the point of view of

dierent sectors of Egyptian society: the poor peasants, the rural middle

class, the feudal aristocracy, the industrialist and private entrepreneurs, and

the state bureaucracy?

➔

To what extent did Nasser change Egypt? Why did cer tain problems persist?

➔

How successful were Nasser ’s foreign policies

- as seen from the global

perspective, the Arab perspective, and the Egyptian perspective?

➔

What were the shor t- and long-term consequences of Nasser ’s foreign policies?

Key concepts

➔

Consequences

➔

Signicance

➔

Continuity

➔

Perspectives

Nasser ’s development strategy

By

1954

from

of

the

Egypt

now

of

Egyptians

from

those

these

the

Nasser

moral

The

of

to

of

a

the

the

of

the

a

Egypt.

armed

now

had

attempt

release

landed

free

to

been

He

build

He

the

their

removed

“a

on

the

centre

his

life

had

would

and

better

underdevelopment

in

so

and

the

free

their

from

Nasser

they

in

life,

all

free

Fellahin

regime

which,

emerged

to

aristocrats.

revolution”,

Egyptians

had

forces

benefactor.

and

wealthy

offer

the

assassination

“national

and

over

of

champion,

were

would

exploitation

control

ranks

imperialists

obstacles

effect

himself,

the

failed

hero,

him

All

of

The

control

loyal

into

a

grip

promises.

put

chains

undisputed

stage.

suffocating

and

had

quasi-obscurity

political

offered

the

Nasser

the

fulll

could

words

from

the

material

and

forms”.

new

regime

was

committed

to

bringing

about

social

and

economic

state capitalism changes

in

order

to

solidify

its

support,

tackle

Egypt’s

underdevelopment

State capitalism is when the state and

strengthen

the

power

of

the

state

apparatus.

We

refer

to

these

policies

subsidizes capitalists. The system as

Nasser’s

“development

strategy”.

The

economist

Riad

el-Ghonemy

remains capitalist; there is a breaks

up

Nasser’s

development

strategy

into

two

distinct

phases:

maximization of prot but production

is “owned” by the state. In the case of

●

Egypt, after 1957 the state star ted to take

Phase

one,

“private

from

1952

enterprise

to

1956,

was

characterized

saw

a

by

what

he

called

economy”.

over companies belonging to individuals. ●

Phase

two,

from

1956

to

1970,

move

towards

greater

state

Later, the state invested in major projects. intervention

28

and

justied

the

expression

“ state

capitalism”.

C H A P T E R

In

Egypt

the

domestic

drafted,

offering

replaced

the

Elections

voting

year

1956

policies.

witnessed

was

Egypt

the

the

of

candidates,

disqualifying

the

same

Nasser

brought

French.

Nasser

about

The

into

the

UAR

was

brought

The

year

the

1956

economy

and

1960s:

state

the

the

July

of

was

Once

again

a

new

this

Syria

was

nominated

1961

the

pushed

share

UAR

a

of

(see

congress

adopted,

Suez

was

in

of

Egypt

women

the

and

under

state

War

led

to

The

The

its

grew.

to

in

the

establishment

1956

hands

In

the

discuss

1964

road

state bureaucracy

to

the

a

State bureaucracy is a system of

government where, instead of elected

the

for

and

the

the

1961

called

in

of

during

down

again

the

jurisdiction.

the

further

followed

and

propelled

intervention

in

convened

which

constitution

accelerated

once

camp.

1956,

British,

1958.

economy

below)

the

in

Canal

power

trend

elections

with

Executive

provisional

greater

was

which

Western

needed.

a

Egypt,

the

the

region

with

This

and

was

president.

screened

Canal

Israelis,

the

towards

its

later,

body,

from

this

and

Union,

as

National

Suez

(UAR)

replaced

foreign

19 5 2 – 19 7 0

them.

the

in

its

P O L I C I E s ,

constitution

year

The

the

concentration

state’s

time,

of

constitution

move

of

a

N A s s E R ’ s

both

new

Nasser

held

away

of

Republic

bureaucracy.

from

This

move

victory

and

greater

the

were

in

a

National

history.

throughout

Arab

a

the

involving

region,

decrees

as

party,

number

to

war

role

saw

a

Syria

reorganization.

Charter.

larger

state

capitalism

secession

began

Egyptian

that

shift

which

government-selected

large

abolished

also

in

nationalization

United

and

the

a

major

maintained

Egyptian

a

tripartite

meant

that

leader

a

the

leadership

of

constitution

the

Egypt

assumed

a

emergence

of

year

Union,

announced

and

Assembly

in

Committee

In

the

time

a

year

single

Rally

National

rst

the

one

Liberation

for

for

This

1 . 3 :

new

1962

Nasser

representatives, appointed state

ocials make decisions. For the sake

of eciency, every country needs a

bureaucracy but in some countries,

president.

such as Egypt, the power of the state

bureaucracy surpasses that of the

The impor tance of cotton in Egyptian history elected representatives. Alexandria’s Cotton exchange rst opened in 1865. It was where cotton

merchants met and set the price of cotton, based on levels of demand and

supply. Of the 35 registered cotton brokers in 1950, only two were Egyptian;

the most inuential cotton expor ters were British. Nasser closed the Exchange The changing price of cotton

in November 1952 and set a nominal price at which the government would buy

Years

Price of cotton per 50 kg

cotton from the farmers. The purpose of this was to bring stability to the economy

(in Egyptian £) and give farmers a secure income.

1918–1927

7.8

Nasser reopened the Cotton Exchange in September 1955. Later, in the 1961

reforms, the Exchange was nationalized. Today a cotton museum traces its

1928–1947

3.1

1948–1952*

16

1952

12

history: http://www.thecottonmuseum.com/en#b

Nasser ’s domestic policies *The eects of the Korean War The

problems

Egypt’s

had

totally

on

ties

not

that

as

a

imperial

what

in

so

whole.

and

was

slow

primarily

changes

This

to

in

to

to

to

how

the

as

the

a

it

forward.

world

made

The

the

market

world

production

price

situation

Foreign

had

had

caused

–

for

an

to

investment

Egyptians

Source: Waterbury, J. The Egypt of Nasser and

Sadat: The Political Economy of Two Regimes

backward

cotton;

needed

was

linked

concentration

predominantly

world

much

predominantly

Britain.

produce,

move

cotton

unhealthy

were

namely

Egypt

vulnerable

relation

–

economy

power,

Egypt

maintained

was

agriculture

employment,

Egyptian

passive

uctuated

addition,

the

production

economy

Egypt

the

chosen

dependent,

revenue

of

with

only

cotton

rural

facing

the

biggest

enormous

economic

Egypt’s

cotton.

In

source

effect

on

instability.

29

1

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

The

slow

economic

population,

poor

feddan

relatively

held

An Egyptian unit of area equivalent to

about

controlled

1.038 acres.

the

a

static.

third

ve

who

a

Owning

rural

A

of

“Land

the

rent

landowner.

The

solution

to

●

Firstly,

●

Secondly,

it

fellahin

this

would

economy

it

was

At

at

to

and

necessary

per

while

had

high

to

on

of

the

kept

of

the

the

scale

land

wish

calls

cent

in

list

it,

of

the

came

the

to

most

raised

their

and

landowners

order

of

rural

rich

landowners

remaining

rent

per

also

between

cent)

the

Waterbury

60

had

gap

make

of

the

the

rents;

income

in

twofold:

to

to

being

(0.4

about

was

the

bottom

but

as

pay

necessary

from

the

all

hunger”,

had

country

land,

therefore

problem

be

away

less.

land

was

sometimes

the

or

the

poor

proportion

cultivable

no

land

population.

to

tiny

all

owned

of

extremely

feddans

millions

living.

development

fellahin,

distribute

diversify

purely

a

land

and

rural

from

move

the

the

rich

to

the

poor.

Egyptian

one.

Agrarian reforms

The

agrarian

from

large

lands

were

amount

met

the

As

of

with

such

a

land

is

ownership

a

51+

from

the

“resolved”

Agrarian

demoralized

will

Reform

as

well

man

and

defend

and

the

The

when

Maher

changed

law

(Law

178)

To

land”.

was

but

9

ceiling

not

by

“A

landed

17

family’s

on

one,

want

General

1952.

to

is

take

1952

passed

This

landless

Egypt

the

was

Neguib.

Neguib

peasant

years

away

royal

September

September

A

land

new

Minister

Neguib,

next

a

a

did

in

replaced

quote

the

set

not

who

Prime

person.

Over

taking

former

to

though

classes,

on

by

The

aimed

Maher,

hands,

politically.

land

ones.

idea,

Minister

defenceless

his

small

landowning

Law

as

to

own.

Prime

against

government

morally

who

could

redistribute

it

was

peasant

a

man

would

of

pass

two

more

The

rst

agrarian

reform

laws,

in

1961

and

1969.

feddans

11 – 50

35.4

was

the

to

giving

expropriated,

anyone

step

aimed

and

feddans

6 – 10

33.1

laws

opposition

as

First

spirits 0–5

land

problem

justied

1952

entirely

drastic

soon

the

reform

landowners

feddans

law

limited

land

ownership

to

200

feddans.

A

landowner

was

feddans

permitted

children,

be

taken

parcels

to

dispose

thus

from

of

two

of

raising

them

to

another

the

in

ve

100

ceiling

return

to

for

feddans

300

as

government

feddans,

to

those

ownership,

so

all

a

feddans

who

donation

per

bonds

owned

to

family.

and

ve

his

The

wife

rest

and

would

redistributed,

feddans

or

in

less.

8.7 21.6

The

state

retained

an

obligation

30

years.

land

pay

Those

cooperative. 1961

to

back

owning

The

1952

the

less

law

loan

than

also

farmers

to

the

ve

xed

receiving

state

in

feddans

a

land

were

instalments

were

minimum

obliged

wage

to

and

under

within

it

join

a

land

became

ownership

illegal

0–5

to

pay

labourers

less

than

18

piasters

a

day

(equivalent

to

52

cents).

feddans

Before

6 – 10

the

July

Revolution

the

average

wage

for

a

labourer

had

been

feddans

8.5

piasters

when,

to

keep

them

alive,

a

farmer

a

water

needed

8

piasters

per

day

15.3 11 – 50

feddans

for 51+

a

donkey,

12

for

a

mule

and

28

for

buffalo.

The

second

law

feddans

(Law

52.1

In

127),

1963

passed

foreign

in

1961,

reduced

landowners

had

the

their

ceiling

land

to

100

feddans

expropriated.

per

Finally,

family.

in

1969,

24

a

third

per

law

owner,

(Law

50)

while

was

passed

maintaining

where

100

the

feddans

ceiling

for

a

was

halved

to

50

feddans

family.

8.6

According

▲

Percentage of land ownership in Egypt

30

to

the

include

1969,

poorest

fellahin.

gures

the

main

In

provided

by

beneciaries

1952

those

John

of

owning

Waterbury,

Nasser’s

ve

which

reforms

feddans

or

were

less

do

not

the

were

in

C H A P T E R

possession

of

35.4

per

cent

of

the

total

1 . 3 :

cultivable

N A s s E R ’ s

land;

in

1961

P O L I C I E s ,

19 5 2 – 19 7 0

this 1952

gure

rose

to

52.1

per

cent.

At

the

other

end

of

the

scale,

the

2.5

landowners

or

in

more

started

controlled

1961.

The

to

control

33.1

amount

per

less

cent

owned

by

land:

of

the

the

those

land

groups

who

in

in

owned

1952

the

but

50

only

middle

–

%

of

owners

richest

feddans

15.3

the

per

0.4

2.8 0

to

5

6

to

10

rural 11

middle

class

(6–50

feddans)

–

remained

extremely

to

net

takeover

beneted

from

however,

6

land

the

two

million

underwent

total

of

land

this

feddans,

reform.

agricultural

feddans,

agricultural

on

was

930,299

redistribution.

“The

land

average

so

only

laws

among

feddans

The

a

...

and

cultivable

small

318,000

land

small

tenants,

only

in

percentage

redistributed

representing

10

in

per

13

of

per

family

cent

of

feddans

families

Egypt

the

cent

94.3

of

units

the

was,

cultivable

of

total

households”. 1961

The

50

stable. 51+

The

feddans

cent

policies

increased

the

number

of

small

landholders.

Land

was

2.9

%

of

owners

0.3

2.6

taken

poor

from

the

farmers

very

wealthy

remained

and

high.

In

given

1952

to

the

those

poor,

who

but

the

owned

number

ve

of

feddans

0

to

5

6

to

10

11

or

less

constituted

94.3

per

cent

of

all

landowners

and

by

1965

to

had

landholders

relatively

risen

but

the

stable.

previously

to

95.1.

Society

owned

Consequently

numbers

was

enormous

of

those

thus

who

there

transformed

plots

of

more

were

owned

more

more

land

modestly;

than

200

very

feddans

small

remained

those

feddans

50

the

51+

percentage

feddans

who

no

had

longer 94.1

existed. The

the

absolute

laws

reduced

poverty

of

However,

the

reforms

1972

the

rural

half

the

those

did

grave

who

not

inequalities

now

succeed

population

was

owned

in

still

giving

in

land

land

land

landless.

It

for

to

can

distribution

the

rst

time.

everyone;

also

be

and

in

argued 1965

that,

by

increasing

the

number

of

smallholdings,

the

economy

as

2.2

whole

did

not

benet

and

the

poor

remained

%

of

owners

a 0.3

2.4

poor.

0

to

5

6

to

10

11

to

51+

feddans

50

feddans

0.3

95.1

▲

▲

Percentage of land owners in Egypt

Nasser handing documents to an Egyptian fellah in a land distribution ceremony in

Minya in 1954

31

1

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

Another

land.

fact

feature

Rents

that

same

and

the

until

price

sharp

drop

“Probably

there

is

ensure

These

in

economic

A feudal system is a way of structuring

system

society so that economic and political

a

power is in the hands of large landowners.

feudal

In Egypt, the feudal lords became the

from

symbol of the corrupt old regime.

Recognizing

they

in

one.

to

to

One

the

with

a

interest

and

in

rates,

followed

our

land

of

the

Through

government

Neguib

is

of

we

interesting

saw

rural

smaller

credit

middle

and

but

the

1950s

had

50

1969

never

For

the

had

their

amount

published

in

its

more

They

too

he

to

feudal

was

the

old

mostly

middle

class.

“benefactor”,

and

them

to

dependent

“[The

the

and

Revolution]

...

but

leadership

state

of

bureaucracy

landowners”

“controlled”

started

5000

were

to

the

left

(Louis

wrote:

the

in

With

end.

is

to

book.

the

to

this

The

richer

of

of

law,

farmers

than

crop

the

offer

early

at

was

Agriculture

the

of

rotation.

the

lowest,

redistribution

last

of

cooperatives’

its

of

nonetheless

measures

to

they

unhappy .

smack

is

enthusiasm

Ministry

were,

because

criticism

prescriptive

fell

low

Government-

to

it

an

the

transportation

the

said

these

as

the

very

farmers

policies,

of

ceiling

the

at

under

by

assisted

“Another

his

evade

such

came

run

“experts”

power

rural

with

cooperatives

government”

many

the

1952

locally

These

the

allocated

why

in

credit

programme

dictates,

an

be

machinery ,

advantage

1969.

to

allow

to

cultural

them

much

announced,

of

rural

their

government

concern

means

acreage

came

of

defended

took

explains

a

there

gained

cooperatives

and

animals,

when

Although

of

The

offered

policies

that

rigid

had

around

the

hand

given

raise

an

countryside

small

agronomists.

Neguib

statistics

Egypt

this

were

this

they

cooperative

more

waned.

Waterbury

redistribution

to

farmers.

reforms

clearly

feddans,

small.

class)

poorer

avoided

When

t

1970

Agriculture

These

to

Our

These

million.

heavy

have

Although

(the

of

3

them

“the

alluded

that

By

but

big

as

from

landownership

bureaucracy

fertilizers,

sent

policies.

cooperatives.

he

state

over

or

as

and

and

to

writer).

cooperatives,

seeds,

authoritarianism”.

that

the

large

that

replace

that

persisted.

social

fellahin

cooperatives.

the

as

income,

the

and

production:

viewed

reform

to

500 000.

and

in

eye

is

market)

to

new

continued

landowners

Ministry

provided

often

controlled

the

around

facilities,

Mohammed

which

was

improving

storage

however,

32

of

big

blind

abolishing

intellectual

membership

council.

farmers

small

a

poor

rents

Therefore

the

the

land”.

came

the

move

Hansen,

objective

apparatus

in

to

explain

society

Fellahin

were

the

black

state.

class’

state

economic,

not

the

remained

Bent

the

on

the

improvements

xed

the

social

Those

state

turn

very

by

by

the

to

Egyptian

middle

of

especially

fellah

and

reforms

to

The

political,

through

supervision

elected

of

politically

membership

the

agrarian

countryside,

class

channel

existed

the

Egyptian

political

land

freeze

despite

would

the

cultivate

transform

landlords’.

of

rent

and,

rents

make

from

a

incentive

which

effect

directly

land

little

to

of

land

According

(aside

‘rural

ready

had

people

overseers

was

the

1963.

on

rose,

incentive

revolutionary

reforms.

liberate

over

The

‘richest

state

a

to

managed

Inequalities,

to

an

districts

much

tax

stagnation,

allocation

aimed

local

the

Egyptian

Awad,

as

new

the

the

handed

and

the

an

competent

society.

the

from

exploited.

a

as

of

mechanism

government’s

return

the

in

became

wanted

had

They

imposition

the

tenants

after

serious

system

shift

lords

benet

it

a

less

brought

any

the

times

commodities

growth

most

measures

feudal system

the

even

most

the

was

seven

other

rigidity

longer

that

power

of

yield

the

no

reforms

at

Consequently,

had

This

the

xed

1976.

landlords

(Oweiss).

of

were

process

of

C H A P T E R

1 . 3 :

N A s s E R ’ s

P O L I C I E s ,

19 5 2 – 19 7 0

The move towards industrialization

While

recognizing

economy,

Without

the

its

dependent

state

that

did

own

on

would

the

importance

regime

was

indigenous

the

need

private

not,

the

new

nations.

assume

sector

however,

the

would

mean

agriculture

fully

industry,

industrial

to

of

also

the

the

of

to

regime

this

in

the

the

Egyptian

need

would

also

work

invest

regime

for

of

country

The

bulk

want

that

aware

such

industrialize.

remain

understood

because

it

major

discouraged

to

always

was

that

projects.

private

the

unlikely

This

investment.

The rst phase, 1952–1956

In

the

rst

“private

aimed

build

public

allowed

access

to

Law

exemptions

the

import

the

pragmatic

associated

image

with

stagnated

investors,

as

thus

countries

had

viability

infringing

investors.

October

established.

to

discuss

aware

of

particular

Morocco,

public

In

this

plans

the

development,

met.

the

Given

Aswan

water.

Dam,

Other

complex

in

In

have

other

a

were

in

1902.

projects

Helwan,

to

of

the

at

construct

in

and

in

to

to

an

have

enticing

1954

passed

offered

that

lowered

measures

years

and

socialist

the

in

reect

bring

that

into

would

most

the

be

middle

land

the

also

and

reform

Reform

well

as

path

see

fertilizer

of

reduced

private

task

that

the

dam

plant

in

of

the

The

experts

import

to

produce

what

ensure

a

of

an

of

were

income,

sector.

the

steady

Aswan,

Tahrir

fully

they

needs

source

site

were

regional

consumers’

the

met

substitution

promote

main

was

technicians

agricultural

at

in

Law)

army

to

Egypt’s

would

reclamation

Eastern

programme,

Production

of

needed

high

anti-colonial

again

mistrust

the

period

urgent.

sought

as

had

countries

Middle

which

development.

they

of

1953

Private

1950s,

welcoming

Other

National

as

the

Neighbouring

Agrarian

of

Between

million.

in

rendered

boosting

a

£E8

year

risky.

classic

project

a

desert

a

more

experts

They

aimed

to

rst

number

view

These

disturbances,

agriculture

included

and

not

little

rst

words,

This

only

provoked

unemployment,

project

built

on

a

successful.

Ofcers’

national

imported.

to

were

a

much

the

a

the

shares

25

was

early

very

investment

civilian

Egypt

the

of

investors

and

as

starting

earnings

the

with

law

investors.

Development

importance

projects

included

after

the

put

also

that

long-term

to

reduce

the

industrial

These

for

Free

private

month

(ISI).

otherwise

of

sector

council

for

need

industrialization

would

(a

Council

were

political

had

was

1953

million

Algeria

The

of

anti-western

not

£E30

investment

property,

in

of

foreign

A

and

offered

cent

above

come.

European

and

in

to

government

pursuit

machinery.

amounted

1950s

witnessed

absence

1952

Permanent

The

per

Egypt.

were

around

In

were

this

430

and

new

investors

permitted

in

to

referred

the

repatriation

51

regime

years

investment.

the

to

Laws

incentives

was

private

hot-headed,

the

rendering

of

The

the

of

investment.

resources;

Nasser’s

1960s.

also

also

materials

investment

private

developing

In

in

Tunisia,

conicts,

the

the

of

in

these

which

by

law

phase

investors

up

investing

raw

of

him

foreign

investment,

own

Egypt.

those

for

nature

Unfortunately

1961

to

duties

the

to

the

facilitated

underground

to

–

policies

state

private

1954

new

companies

the

encouraging

and

in

A

–

through

investors

Egypt’s

tax

such

26

company.

petroleum

question

at

sector

foreign

Egyptian

for

industrialization

economy”

industrialists

incentives.

and

of

simultaneously

the

objective,

of

phase

enterprise

old

supply

iron

and

of

steel

Province.

33

1

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

These

projects

requested

the

US

needed

$100

government.

British,

funding.

million

in

In

August

military

Washington,

and

1954

the

economic

under

government

assistance

pressure

from

from

the

hesitated.

The second phase, 1956–1970

In

the

the

absence

government

nationalization

posture

The process of taking a private industry or

and

private assets into public ownership by a

economy

national government.

away

A

of

with

funding

shifted

regard

to

sequestration,

and

from

large

sequestration

at

The process of taking legal possession

phase,

the

of assets.

26

number

but

July

1956,

On

The

of

the

as

regime

coercive

or

came

to

the

and

Through

United

States,

authoritarian

nationalization

extend

moved

entrepreneurs

new

startling

a

week

act

after

speaking

page

came

more

ownership.

development

regime’s

day,

announced

news

of

Egyptian

only

(see

Nasser’s

a

investment

its

control

further

and

of

the

further

entrepreneurship.

most

that

Exchange

Nasser

of

the

private

towards

private

pattern

private

hands

credit.

the

from

29),

the

a

the

economic

of

the

from

United

the

symbol

to

the

their

policies

sequestration

British

of

entire

the

assets

during

was

States

balcony

of

nationalization

shock

lost

of

this

suffered

second

announced

withdrew

the

its

on

offer

Alexandria

economic

Suez

world.

and

of

Cotton

domination,

Canal.

From

nationalist

The Suez Canal anti-British

The Suez Canal was a French company

with headquar ters in Paris, but Great

Britain had acquired the majority of its

shares. The company’s assets were about

£E95 million in 1956. Egypt’s revenues in

royalties had been £E2.3 million in 1955,

its

he

vital

rhetoric

asset

in

announced,

has

in

fact

Today,

Our

canal

120 000

Egypt,

“the

been

citizens,

...

to

the

Nasser

Suez

How

Egyptian

in

declare

could

of

it

that

taken

has

the

be

actually

had

Canal

published

we

act

a

been

Ofcial

our

dispossessing

deant

nationalized

Gazette

property

otherwise

has

when

it

Great

step.

and

and

has

been

was

Britain

“Today,

this

decree

become

returned

dug

at

of

citizens,”

the

law.

to

us

cost

…

of

lives?”

rising to £E42 million in 1958 and £E77 This

was

the

beginning

of

a

series

of

heavy-handed

sequestrations.

million in 1962. In

the

same

month

underlining

investor.

the

The

the

state’s

seizure

Ministry

of

Industry

intention

to

replace

of

the

Canal

was

the

triggered

a

established,

private

sector

tripartite

war

thus

as

primary

(see

below),

Class discussion at

the

end

of

Who was the rightful owner of the

Egyptian

Suez Canal?

companies,

of

which

all

government.

and

French

In

January

commercial

non-Egyptian

hands.

and

As

British

1957

agencies

the

pace

all

for

of

assets

were

taken

commercial

foreign

trade

sequestration

over

banks,

were

grew,

by

the

insurance

taken

the

out

state

The facts:

formed

●

Nasr

●

●

public

holding

companies

(the

Economic,

the

Misr,

and

the

Britain and France had built the Canal. companies)

Britain had purchased France’s shares

holding

of the Canal.

another

The Canal is situated in Egypt.

In

the

The

but

with

same

hoped.

was

1958.

the

new

year

The

done

The

kept

aim

the

Ministry

regime

and

public

had

managerial

once

Industry

again

law

companies

was

a

invest

as

in

and

rst

in

the

bonds.

the

three

the

to

one

plan.

years,

state

projects.

in

January

powerhouse

inuence.

Ministry.

distribution

state

as

signed

becoming

tremendous

from

these

with

industrial

within

state-run

USSR,

rst

productivity.

forthcoming

the

At

competed

reached

million

gained

assets.

Egypt’s

was

gradually

prot

and

efciency

from

licence

limiting

to

staff

not

£E90

loan

charge

required

acquired

presented

invested

in

their

investment

substantial

those

newly

increasing

were

of

a

their

the

government

a

plants

passed

stock

of

of

state

with

industrial

obliging

administer

investors

government

34

the

objective

private

This

of

companies

plan’s

had

to

In

All

1959

the

stockholders

and

C H A P T E R

1 . 3 :

N A s s E R ’ s

P O L I C I E s ,

19 5 2 – 19 7 0

The rst Five-Year Plan

In

1960

expand

the

the

potential

slogan,

Egypt:

In

and

July

“From

1961

more

and

Nasser

“an

that

not

Charter

if

it

was

private

sector

mistaken

public

of

mediocre

By

it

started

had

year

to

dug

as

had

did

too

Nasser

prisoner

not

large.

It

offering

into

of

his

his

down;

a

own

realization

would

not

that

something

had

be

highly

Congress

was

1

of

up

by

Management

is

on

18

of

of

even

of

rights

of

arrested.

the

necessary

the

and

Five

the

tactic

was

as

the

public

the

in

public

as

Nasser

that;

because

sector

Year

by

a

reality”.

“zero

from

was

capacity.

sector

inefcient

sum

the

probably

enlarging

public

Plan

National

taken

productive

the

Plan

did

did

the

not

in

was

rate

rise.

exports

payment

and

which

direction

not

of

To

go

the

In

the

under

bureaucratic

functioning

annual

make

up.

decits.

The

The

–

–

instead

for

of

country

public

was

This

sector

was

addressing

ideological

He

growth

matters

over-protected.

socialism”.

science

public

After

staff,

March

Waterbury

a

nor

become

done.

managerial

Production

summed

and

to

positioned

its

large

that

“Arab

became

reasons,

indeed

the

the

he

becoming

discourse.

This

of

of

The

stagnation.

over-staffed

change

model

simple

Although

Charter,

shipping

industry.

political

imposed

Nasser’s

incentive,

a

for

organizations

hands

of

Where

become

Its

considerable

policies

were

wrote

state.

balance

the

he

the

increase

a

basic

become

beneciary

as

objective

banks,

the

milking

benet

therefore

was

had

inevitability

not

industry.

state

the

What

productivity

go

into

state.

was

to

export

discarded.

the

wished.

serious

39

number

on

describing

economic

capita

presented

and

further

by

apparent

been

per

register

grown

to

decrees

major

by

Nasser’s

or

could

lead

A

bent

and

withdrew

solution”,

automatically

and

year

being

historical

equation

becoming

high,

imports

problems

a

was

efciently

remained

could

the

“them”

directly

the

not

a

move

either

were

included

replaced

and

of

nationalized

heavy

concentrated

seemed

be

in

was

with

ambitious

These

that

objective

years.

further

capitalists”.

socialist

“was

management

that

worse,

“The

this

were

an

ve

rms

socialist

sector

would

38),

that

as

Its

industries

distribution

set

sector.

October

being

these

competition

machine

1962

it

be

did

within

dispossessed

was

that

would

was

sector

absence

to

well

In

regional

decrees

companies

private

page

as

launched.

promote

rocket”,

entrepreneurs

explains

game”;

socialist

state

wealth

masses”.

(see

the

“reactionary

allowed

Waterbury

as

of

private

the

of

The

explained

and

to

non-agricultural

companies.

exploitative

and

equitable

companies

number

was

sector,

self-reliant

holding

438

country’s

sector

an

needle

series

Plan

goods

totally

vindictive.

large

The

the

the

existing

grouping

a

a

of

insurance

three

Five-Year

achieve

become

proportion

and

rst

consumer

in

the

whose

a

until

1967,

signicant

Nasser

1967.

spoke

What

following

rules

do

when

it

reshufing

at

he

the

said

was

of

a

opening

to

the

clear

number

of

the

attendees

way:

not

change

under

socialism

capitalism.

2

Wages

3

The

must

ASU

be

(Arab

production

linked

to

Socialist

production.

Union)

should

no

longer

interfere

in

the

process.

35

1

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

At

this

end.

point

The

Nasser’s

struggle

dismantling

successor,

Anwar

of

the

to

alter

state

the

economic

capitalist

system

system

was

to

came

be

left

to

to

an

his

Sadat.

Silencing the opposition

Although

the

by

1954

Liberation

Autonomous

unions,

of

basic

forums

were,

regime

had

had

supported

importance

Nasser’s

return

the

of

a

the

repressive

Nasser’s

at

measures

regime

potential

form

autonomy

of

of

“the

all

remaining

carefully.

in

power”,

of

such

civil

as

trade

centres

political

also

because

aware

crisis

and

of

of

system:

...

to

they

of

the

1954,

those

when

who

workers

wanted

demanding

leadership.

was

given

appeasement

to

always

appease,

rights;

workers

it

and

but

Ultimately

do:

it

silenced

curtailed

and

containment

ruthlessly

as

unwillingness

opposition.

regimes

such

“alternative

groups

tactic

by

power”.

was

were

case

through

by

of

Nasser’s

His

restricting

opposition

the

demonstrations

available

of

is

Neguib

conrmed

members

These

March

by

Concessions

by

opposition,

these

the

replaced

suppressed.

authoritarian

Nasser

In

authoritarian

centres

their

mass

rule

opposition

an

centres

challenged

tread

as

coup.

voice

systems

suppressing

backing.

time.

were

acted

incorporating

stied

to

to

and

completely

existed.

political

Ofcers’

being

same

still

alternative

time

military

had

the

of

banned

yet

potentially

unacceptable

democracy,

of

been

not

mosques,

their

was

liberal

therefore

repression

Free

having

had

was

authoritarian

harder

authority

to

could

the

existence

continuation

Nasser

by

of

the

The

that

or

parties

society

however,

feature

countenance

a

civil

universities,

power”

“A

political

Rally,

student

and

suppressing

any

the

unions,

control;

and

it

it.

Controlling the unions

The

trade

challenge

their

were

unions

to

action

the

had

ostracized

had

new

been

as

August

brutally

veteran,

with

1952,

their

suppressed

and

“the

posed

strike

and

those

“traitors”.

executions

In

the

at

who

the

were

rst

Kafr

a

al

major

Dawwar,

stood

words

regime

but

accused

of

one

stand

trade

against

Sea

Port

Kafr

the

Said

communists

and

not

the

workers”.

A

year

later

another

al

strike Alexandria

in

“communists”

union

Mediterranean

already,

government

of

textile

workers

in

Imbaba,

a

neighbourhood

of

Giza,

Dawwar

met

with

a

similar

and

around

degree

of

repression.

The

army

was

sent

in

Suez Cairo

aybiL

got

Sharm

el-Sheikh

the

message;

another

It

was

3000

arrests

they

were

would

made.

think

Militant

twice

trade

about

unionists

organizing

strike.

now

time

“appeasement”.

for

As

the

a

government

counterbalance

to

to

switch

the

to

repressive

EGYPT

measures,

workers

were

offered

a

series

of

benets:

with

Luxor

the Red

Law

of

Individual

Contracts

(December

1953)

workers

Sea

received

an

vacations,

increase

and

free

in

severance

transportation

pay,

and

extended

health

annual

care.

Prior

Aswan

to

this

law

making

it

the

redundant.

were

no

government

harder

for

These

longer

had

employers

benets,

permitted.

increased

to

make

however,

The

job

their

came

unspoken

at

security

a

cost:

▲

Location of Kafr al Dawwar

36

in

exchange

for

no

dismissal

strikes

agreement

Sudan

strike

without

by

workers

cause”.

was

“no

C H A P T E R

Trade

“a

unions

were

concentration

The

number

rst

six

over

the

born.

of

years

Nasser

their

the

had

came

workers’

Egypt

to

as

social

boards.

before

In

in

and

board

the

and

of

workers

Trade

positions

privileges

had

and

in

been

in

by

thus

had

the

control

Unions

Nasser’s

He

19 5 2 – 19 7 0

prevent

tripled

appointed

power”.

to

P O L I C I E s ,

proliferation.

tightening

throughout

of

them

of

wholly

the

centre

aim

Egyptian

workers

given

kinds

of

wanted

their

membership

the

was

N A s s E R ’ s

Nasser

allowed

their

with

incorporating

status

he

Federation

“alternative

These

contrary,

so

1957,

executive

represent

an

the

and

doubled

rule.

General

succeeded

existence

company

the

whose

on

power”

unions

Nasser’s

body,

government,

banned;

union

trade

of

workers,

This

not

of

1 . 3 :

was

the

regime.

eliminating

also

changed

parliament

and

non-existent

in

1952.

Controlling the universities

The

students

pledged

rights

–

such

political

ranks

the

of

–

in

(see

informants

to

Education

kept

controlled

those

The

by

as

as

silencing

much

the

as

regime

promise

of

control

education,

the

posts

student

were

were

no

ofces

the

as

doubt

the

who

opposition,

of

among

to

in

country

Many

Nasser’s

better

incentives

by

of

socialist

of

cannot

Higher

professors

and

incentives

only

the

be

explained

student

genuinely

to

youth

guards”

incorporated.

affected

mattered

and

Socialist

offered

not

to

many

body

supported

Furthermore,

opportunities,

that

in

students,

“university

be

achievements.

job

Arab

also

students

a

the

ofces,

than

Ministry

to

civil

to

joined

supporters

the

recruitment

agreed

belong

Rally

replaced

They

had

of

demonstrated

employed

The

too,

Revolutionary

rather

of

however,

the

to

them

the

recruit

were

students.

those

and

right

Liberation

activities.

on

They,

suppression

students

to

Interior

society.

proud

future

the

establishment

popularity

of

this,

campuses

student

to

the

the

representatives

these

of

or

resistance

counter

the

silence.

once

activists

1954

great

enrolled

sectors

better

the

surveillance

Nasser’s

and

a

After

below),

who

other

To

to

but

elections

March

up

Ministry

close

of

hold

university

government

repression.

In

put

forum

Ofcers,

government

on

The

to

(RCC).

of

opponents.

1962

harder

announced,

and

Council

a

Free

opposition.

organizations.

such

be

right

was

established

Union

to

the

the

consisting

intimidate

and

for

change

Command

were

as

party

of

support

mainly

proved

support

the

mention

free

students.

Controlling the mosques

The

biggest

particular

In

all

his

the

In

the

circle”

and

last

that

However,

Endowments,

nancial

had

and

1952,

Awqaf,

the

many

Brothers.

speeches

pages

autonomy

banned

arrested

in

to

regime

tightened

the

The

Free

grip

to

the

on

the

on

the

had

Nasser’s

was

he

“the

Ministry

away

the

“Arab

So

potential

its

circle

“the

of

of

the

our

Islamic

Religious

attempt,

members,

the

to

mosque’s

socialism”,

in

in

ambivalent.

spoke

of

assassination

of

and

adherence

strengthen

some

overtone.

of

world,

the

taken

the

strong

mosques

Revolution,

to

of

the

religion

his

need

executed

forms

from

outside

creation

secular

all

of

following

Brothers,

a

the

Ofcers

1954,

had

stand

Philosophy

advocated

in

came

proclaimed

Furthermore,

Islam,

its

Nasser’s

Egyptians

he

and

more.

hostile

of

authority

he

through

Muslim

openly

Nasser’s

bound

brethren-in-Islam”

tie”.

to

Muslim

writings

religion.

“third

challenge

while

1960s,

opposition,

they

and

as

not

the

Nasser

once

▲

Al-Azhar University, Ja ˉmi‘at al-Azhar, founded

in 970, is one of the most impor tant centres

of Islamic learning. In 196 1 Nasser brought it

under state control.

again

found

himself

face

to

face

with

the

Muslim

Brothers.

37

1

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

In

the

103

summer

brought

learning

in

university

Muslim

Al

This

Cairo,

board

the

into

the

spiritual

were

message

the

▲

was

their

and

state

the

thus

and

from

under

to

through

in

it

it

as

the

a

the

late

the

of

they

the

the

over

incorporate

of

of

set

as

about

in

with

power”.

Muslim

their

grew

clashed

to

With

control

to

“centre

Qutb

was

the

Seyed

its

number

party

Islamic

non-clerics

able

1950s,

Seyed

Nasser

revival

Possessing

be

a

Law

of

curriculum.

potential

message

that

decrees,

centre

extending

When

chose

its

the

would

leadership,

that

socialist

appointed

subjects

They

society

discovering

Nasser

that

prison

doubt

offensive.

the

premature.

Qutb’s

the

of

world-renowned

silence

movement.

challenged

on

scientic

condent

and

no

the

control.

disbanded

was

was

mid-1960s,

went

euphoria

seemingly

and,

There

the

added

released

leader

conviction.

state

and

system

reconstructing

in

University,

under

regime

condence

Brothers

In

1961,

Azhar

Brotherhood

Azhar,

Islam

of

Al

new

size

and

Nasser’s

constructing.

Muslim

Qutb’s

Brothers,

writings

the

became

a

Seyed Gutb, one of the leaders of the

crime.

A

military

tribunal

court

tried

a

number

of

the

movement’s

leaders;

Muslim Brothers was accused of plotting

they

were

accused

of

having

once

again

plotted

to

assassinate

Nasser.

In

to assassinate Nasser was hanged in 1966

August

The

1966,

a

execution

end.

Nasser

movement

number

of

Qutb

himself

would

of

leaders,

brought

would

not

continue

to

including

the

be

threat

of

Seyed

opposition

challenged

proliferate

Qutb,

by

and

this

grow

were

to

a

hanged.

temporary

organization,

in

the

years

but

to

the

come.

The National Char ter

After

in

use

he

the

secession

September

the

occasion

submitted

session

of

it

foundation

The

just

a

the

approved

on

of

This

the

30

also

cooperatives,

branches

of

of

its

insisted

voice,

of

hence

path

the

a

revolutionary

to

reach

the

methods

exposed

to

aspires

the

the

to

the

“appalling

was

the

had

by

be

to”.

or

was

of

which

The

the

the

“True

Democracy”

behind

fraudulence”

of

those

the

al-’Arabı ˉ.

their

least

The

as

text

individual

the

new

50

a

cent

and

united

superuous.

of

the

Charter

Nation

“The

can

distinguished

a

per

aims

through

followed

revolutionary

leadership.

revolution”:

however,

Revolution

not

Nasser’s

all-encompassing

at

Arab

future”.

addressed

parity,

aside

the

with

his

form

only

ideological

Workplaces,

farmers.

set

revolution.

rationale

to

occupation:

“necessity

existing

Union.

social

attained

Nasser,

single

inaugural

for

It

line

al-Ištira ˉ kı ˉ

each

respect

in

to

1962,

which

the

Unity”.

May

the

People,

under

one

National

workers

bridge,

Arab

Nation

of

21

to

below)

planned

blueprint

fully

al-Ittia ˉd

democracy

entitled

and

way

could

only

copy”

chapter

aims

the

either

Arabs

it

Charter’s

he

the

section

“blindly

Nasser’s

be

future

The

into

to

the

did

creation

(ASU),

On

outlined

“a

and

was

Arab

representation

is

and

a

pluralist

others;

the

the

Nasser

(see

Nasser

Charter”

of

Egypt

This

Republic

changes.

Socialism

businesses

path

from

not

to

whole

the

as

Revolution

liberal,

offered

dedicated

had

Charter

replace

and

Forces

offered

unite

Arab

needed.

National

the

Nation”.

Union

and,

xed

membership

objectives

The

ASU

on

to

would

factories,

of

the

was

important

“The

and

announced

Socialist

United

“Freedom,

“Arab

aimed

party

the

With

was

the

some

called

socialism

the

that

from

constitution

Congress

June.

but

Arab

political

party

38

document

slogan

policy

Charter

party,

new

introduce

Arab

Charter’s

The

to

Syria

a

National

Egyptians

foreign

of

1961,

new

cross

his

approach

models.

gives

us

aims.

system

In

of

an

insight

this

chapter

government

C H A P T E R

that

called

principles

of

these

policies

the

itself

that

“democratic”

he

believed

principles,

were

we

can

introduced.

principles

and

prior

to

the

constituted

have

The

a

revolution

“true

better

table

on

1 . 3 :

and

of

next

why

page

In

some

is

a

the

of

2

19 5 2 – 19 7 0

six

light

the

summary

of

policies.

Principles

1

P O L I C I E s ,

outlined

democracy”.

grasp

the

N A s s E R ’ s

Policies

Political democracy cannot be separated from social

This would explain policies of sequestration

democracy; in order to be “free to vote”, a citizen needs to

and nationalization; through public ownership,

be free from exploitation, enjoy a fair share of the nation’s

citizens would share the nation’s wealth and be

wealth and be free from anxiety.

free from exploitation and anxiety.

Political democracy cannot exist under the domination of

This would explain the banning of

any one class ... it is indispensable to liquidate the forces of

political par ties.

reaction, deprive them of their weapons and prevent them

from making any attempt to come back to power.

3

4

The values of true democracy can only be guarded through

This would explain the setting up of a single

national unity.

par ty, the Arab Socialist Union.

Popular organizations, especially cooperatives and

This would explain the impor tance given to

trade unions, can play an eective and inuential role in

these institutions.

promoting sound democracy.

5

6

Criticism and self-criticism are among the most important

This would explain the banning of the opposition

guarantees of freedom. The most dangerous obstacle in the

press, as they were regarded as the means

way of free criticism ... is the inltration of reactionary elements.

through which ‘reactionary elements’ ‘inltrated.

The new revolutionary concepts of true democracy must

This would explain the tight control of the state

impose themselves [through] education ... the educational

over education.

curricula in all subjects must be reconsidered according to

the Principles of the Revolution.

▲

In

Summary of the principles and policies of the National Char ter

March

1964

provisional

constitution

state,

he

initiate,

came

each

in

gave

was

members

of

in

had

to

be

one

of

the

two

two

ten

the

were

had

of

Of

on

or

of

the

be

an

as

in

its

revolution,

his

vice

to

the

literate

a

and

worker

restoring

half

were

by

workers

the

president;

laws.

or

An

over

that

social

and

the

age

farmers,

of

head

the

of

all

power

the

to

innovation

constituencies,

30,

but

occupational

allocated

and

Egypt’s

This

representatives

This

Charter

justice

forming

As

175

Both

a

dismissed

had

into

farmer.

the

role.

and

he

and

effect.

interesting

divided

a

held

into

strong

legislature.

importance

of

put

appointed

was

representatives

appointed

he

were

was

exceptionally

country

ASU,

either

aim

360

Assembly

Charter

disapprove

the

the

the

executive;

well

voting:

to

the

directly

the

as

reected

groups

democracy”.

National

representatives

members

representation

since

of

a

president

approve,

form

two

for

based

cabinet

propose,

the

the

charge

the

sending

those

elections

constitution

to

achieving

second

eight

“true

legislature

were

women

and

president.

Evaluating Nasser ’s domestic policies

The

the

agrarian

early

more

reforms

years

senior

when

helped

its

politicians

redistribution

of

land,

cement

power

such

as

Nasser

was

those

aimed

popular

easily

in

to

support

challenged

the

Wafd

achieve

for

by

party.

the

RCC

some

in

of

the

Through

the

“sufciency

and

justice”,

39

1

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

which

he

domain

claimed

of

transferring

land

and

land

reform

the

largest

expansion

too

holdings

survival

turn

“No

run

and

matter

annum”.

major

how

as

Egypt’s

he

that

believed

doubling

economic

hoped,

1966

the

al-usra,

the

rise

the

rate

was

of

of

knew

in

the

did

he

not

In

to

the

entail

believed

right

since

of

that

land

own

to

the

national

and

the

Affairs,

more

children.

income

did

rate

not

became

a

General

supported

formed.

by

2.5

On

6

of

a

as

cent

problem:

rate

fast

of

in

as

the

he

problem.

In

li-tanzim

Planning

Ministry

August

be

but

increase

al-ala

Family

in

in

per

the

for

serious

the

cent

Charter,

rise

al-majlis

the

This

would

per

than

the

allows

the

Planning,

Egyptian

in

2.5

in

prospects.

efforts

of

higher

years

which

bureaucracy’s

economic

issue

exceeds

fragmented

used

counterbalance

ten

growth

was

state

farmers

excess

the

would

greatly

the

investment

in

having

introduced

consolidate

of

had

for

They

cooperatives,

the

remained

every

Family

to

Egypt’s

its

addressed

population

for

of

grew

growth

which

criticized

growth

they

state,

income

be

persisted,

production

Council

Sea

socialism.

ownership

the

agriculture.

farmers

way

Association,

Mediterranean

contrary,

introduced

best:

the

Nasser

in

established

of

socialism”

extending

the

poverty

population

national

However,

Higher

as

population

a

brand

of

individual

could

they

symbol

they

development

population”.

had

the

period.

of

by

forced

least,

obstacles

as

his

the

of

traditional

determined

long

this

reforms

they

not

Also,

that

On

existence

ownership

rotation,

became

of

application

earners”.

agrarian

but

supports

ownership.

“the

this

wage

last

throughout

“The

of

two

Arab

reorganize

strategy

out

public

control.

placed

wiped

to

crop

and,

long

power

of

Nasser’s

hard

compulsory

the

to

the

“the

necessitated

number

However,

tried

were

agriculture,

that

of

Social

year,

the

Suez L E A R S I

Canal ALEXANDRIA

4

5

newspaper

planning

Al

Ahram

clinics

had

announced

opened

that

2,850

throughout

family

the

n

s r

s

i

o

country. 3

r t

it

was

not

until

1972

that

the

6

p e

Wadi

el

birth

D

t

However,

1

e

rate

started

to

fall,

so

the

high

population

a

a

CAIRO

Natrun

Sinai

growth

a

still

hampered

the

economic

reforms.

Q

7

As

for

the

expansion

of

the

public

sector,

although

Siwa

there

Oasis

was

a

rational

basis

for

all

the

projects,

they

8

were

not

always

adequately

studied

and

the

RCC

Bahariya

became

irrational

in

the

pursuit

of

its

objectives.

Oasis LIBYA

Farafra Red

N i l

The

is

e

Oasis

Sea

a

land

good

increase

the

reclamation

illustration

the

land

expression

project

of

this.

available

“horizontal

in

Tahrir

The

for

Province

project

aimed

agriculture

expansion”

–

–

in

to

hence

order

Dakhla Kharga

to

increase

the

country’s

revenue.

The

idea

was

9

Oasis Oasis

a

10

Cultivated

area

Reclamation

1960–1986

in

1960

rational:

11

Aswan

projects

High

(approx.)

perfectly

surface

Egypt

area

reclamation

Tuska

N

areas

L

a

desert

k

Major

limit

in

introduced,

A

farms.

of

4

aims

per

In

were

cent

the

of

totally

its

pursuit

total

of

with

its

promoters

model

large,

of

became

its

society

mechanized

was

to

a

little

be

were

to

be

state-owned

self-contained,

clinics,

and

recreational

facilities.

with

They

perennial

the

delta

T ahrir irrigation project

40

new

Villages

Scale 0

250 km

would

ideally

overcrowded ▲

its

roads

SUDAN irrigation

only

productively.

however,

unrealistic.

schools, Former

used

and

e

farming

s s a

Canal

Dry

r e

future

one

Dam

objectives,

Possible

viable

attract

urban

many

areas.

people

and

relieve

the

C H A P T E R

The

Tahrir

project

mismanaged.

found

to

installed

More

be

and

yields

poor

1960

Egyptian

existing

Nasser

traditional

had

the

the

believed

inated

action

sector

the

had

state

rather

a

in

made

system

state,

regime

its

and

had

ranks,

bureaucracy

privileges

Egyptian

poor

new

a

of

the

were

used

a

persistent

people.

been

traditional

projects,

to

existing

publicly

The

Tahrir

whose

“reinvent”

basic

needs

of

the

the

–

the

and

of

the

Egypt’s

in

not

however,

hands

for

tool

–

too

is

it

strongly

heart.

this

the

The

and

form

large

public

to

ultimately

platform

served

by

this

of

infrastructure

of

hegemony”.

the

he

at

materialized

economic

the

eld

economy

which

interests

run,

sound

a

the

establishment

similar

a

to

sector,

manage.

a

In

political

The

public

through

political

ultimate

power

which

purpose

the

to

system

landed

of

of

its

rich

a

single

one

of

large

not

classes,

maintain

By

institution,

While

middle

as

The

government,

aristocracy.

decision-making,

own.

party–

purpose.

their

Nasser’s

born

and

newly

into

the

state

gained

corruption.

There

also

had

culturally

of

possible

and

a

a

framework

“aristocracy”

means

of

of

authoritarian

previous

purpose

the

changed.

had

The

different

and

been

new

set

a

shift

elites

of

in

priorities.

linguistically,

the

brought

but

elites.

with

They

The

them

a

remained

maintained

the

gap L TA

and

long

the

they

people

had

Maintaining

discourse;

rights

Egypt’s

drive

served

nepotism

had

placing

economic

one.

new

every

the

bureaucracy,

exploited.

the

new

bureaucracy

in

“Nationalization

aristocrats/elites,

through

of

of

programme.

interference,

was

authoritarian

within

it

the

state

Mabro,

served

a

In

much

criticisms

giving

was

have

Egypt

Too

democracy

power

not

and

to

gravely

was

anything.

Nasser

the

19 5 2 – 19 7 0

system.

increasing

attempting

measures

he

poor

terms

1969

neglecting

contribution

massive

the

had

new

did

offer

Charter

valid

society

while

in

and

it

had

expense

invested

July

that

P O L I C I E s ,

also

and

drainage

the

overzealous

remained

closer

in

not

created

the

23

economic

state.

economic

that

concentrating

the

the

Nasser’s

rejection

Charter

of

controlled

“defended”

was

was

producing

reclamation

personal:

investors’

ultimate

an

an

at

was

it

tested

grids

no

improving

land

of

was

project

but

was

irrigation

area

On

nationalism:

rightly)

did

to

the

western

Robert

the

than

Nasser’s

as

of

on

authoritarian

challenges.

related

was

very

of

become

opinion

the

with,

soil

there

million

bureaucrats

of

power

capitalism

which

the

idea

private

external

of

start

the

the

the

spent

dangers

these

(probably

the

of

£E483

was

of

soil;

into

third

to

that

N A s s E R ’ s

farmer.

reach

anticipated

face

the

Egyptian

went

failure

the

the

agriculture.

become

farmer,

promoting

state

the

1964

some

for

a

1970

million

justied

beyond

only

and

illustrated

objectives

until

quality;

money

1970

acknowledged

project

overambitious

not

unsuitable

£E192

from

was

was

more

By

Between

only

of

were

farming.

but

It

1 . 3 :

privileges.

Thinking and research skills

Over the 16 years of Nasser ’s presidency,

Time magazine chose him for its cover

Nasser ’s foreign policy aims

page six times. Research these cover Nasser’s

rst

and

foremost

ambition

was

to

“free”

Egypt

from

imperialism

pages and discuss the message they and

consequently

offer

Egypt

a

more

active

role

in

world

politics.

This,

each oer the reader. How do you think therefore,

dened

the

main

traits

of

Egypt’s

foreign

policy

in

the

Nasser

era.

public opinion would have been aected In

the

pursuit

of

these

objectives,

he

was

passionate

and

at

times

extremely

by the way in which Nasser is por trayed? emotional.

He

used

tactics

that

appeared

rash

and

risky.

Some

of

the

risks

41

1

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

he

took

paid

battlefront,

a

doubt,

role

in

in

off;

others

brought

the

world

did

about

course

politics:

of

not.

His

many

Nasser’s

the

decisions

deaths

rule

world’s

and

Egypt

attention

forced

nally

did

Egyptians

caused

come

became

to

play

xed

to

his

on

the

own.

a

Without

more

active

Egypt.

Egypt’s move away from the western camp

To

understand

original

platform

They

had

since

the

First

The

on

1880s

the

of

long

Canal

troops

to

would

return

under

the

As

Zone

if

attack.

British

a

not

Prime

the

been

Cold

East,

the

came

in

known

objective

interpreted

when

the

months

1955

positive neutralism

he

large

On

his

it

British,

pressure

the

form

to

not

return,

a

of

The

a

of

arose

the

to

against

in

to

the

at

Bandung,

Egypt’s

into

zone.

into

–

came

clearly

aid

from

favourable

the

to

British

British

a

and

adversarial

the

Middle

western

Great

USSR,

Cairo.

Britain.

but

This

Nasser

is

why,

opportunity.

and

also

alliance

conference

colonial

camp

Organization,

military

with

the

two

In

the

Treaty

the

“ positive

permitted

RCC;

the

Indonesia,

the

be

Turkey

the

both

isolate

jumped

man

British

stranglehold.

non-aligned

condemning

declared

would

or

to

soldiers.

Churchill,

its

Iraq,

1954

After

following

been

world

of

British

eliminate

October

military

suggested

and

bloc

Nasser

the

Central

British

attend

conference

resolutions

Nasser

Turkey,

had

Britain.

continue

for

have

from

size

proposal

military

by

sought

countries

the

that

power.

British

up

of

of

Winston

the

the

but

to

Zone.

the

country,

victory

come

19

uniformed

would

dividing

extend

Pakistan,

form

felt

CENTO,

Pact.

attempt

the

should

Great

was

Canal

would

site,

deal

RCC

Britain.

number

surprisingly,

attended

number

to

great

the

Nasser

quickly

group

Iran,

an

aid

trying

opportunity

later,

that

a

with

reached

than

great

the

Egyptians”.

unconditional

On

the

British

the

for

stranglehold

the

world.

Arab

States

from

again,

very

to

was

wield

United

Baghdad

as

to

other

a

“Egypt

ambition

over

rather

not

the

side

together

was

for

nally

the

evacuate

any

the

argued

in

to

Egypt,

to

was

the

months

that

Once

proposal

as

“technicians”

–

Arab

Britain

remember

development.

ultimate

they

to

relationship

called

the

years

was

imperialist

Egypt’s

Their

and

important

which

the

had

with

seven

continue

for

each

1955

bringing

The

War

with

valley.

is

Egypt’s

Rally

agreement

aid

Minister,

zones,

a

–

Americans.

The

20

of

stalled

discussions,

region

The

and

Egypt

next

as

counterweight

it

Nile

it

Ofcers,

therefore

both

have

shift,

Egypt”

agreement

the

would

Washington

had

an

but

the

Free

“rid

was

the

from

for

this

Liberation

complicated

compromise:

the

the

signed

and

the

to

suffocated

from

power

RCC

of

agenda

withdrawal

the

evaluate

promised

charter

British

and

three

In

April

lobbied

powers

for

in

Africa.

as

Nehru,

neutralism”.

This expression was used during the In

Bandung

he

had

rubbed

shoulders

with

world

leaders

such

Cold War by countries that actively and Sukarno,

and

Tito

and

had

emerged

on

to

the

world

scene.

This

boosted

consciously sought not to adhere to his

condence

and

made

him

extremely

popular,

which

angered

the

either side. These countries presented British

even

more.

themselves as the third force and tried to

recruit countries to their cause. They were

Removing

also known as “non-aligned nations”.

with

in

an

to

Britain’s

discarding

the

early

years

independent

Washington

Development

42

the

inuence

United

Nasser

tried

relationship

and

the

(IBRD)

was,

States.

to

however,

On

build,

with

the

International

for

a

loan

the

of

in

spite

USA.

Bank

$200

not

for

contrary,

In

for

of

Nasser

it

British

early

synonymous

would

appear

1956

Nasser

Reconstruction

million

towards

that

interference,

turned

and

nancing

a

high

C H A P T E R

dam

in

Aswan.

Nasser’s

attendance

at

Washington

and

the

seven

with

he

be

in

–

both

be

had

decision.

asked

1954

used

to

was

few

months

Republic

considered

Egypt

its

A

People’s

announced

would

British

agreed.

the

that

reversed

later

now

of

Bandung

troops

the

would

Bank

decided

bank

days

British

The

recognition

to

leave

the

hostile

news

the

and

however,

as

in

reached

Zone.

the

N A s s E R ’ s

of

The

of

the

on

Suez

West

from

High

–

camp

19 July;

Canal.

agreement

the

19 5 2 – 19 7 0

his

opposing

Nasser

the

P O L I C I E s ,

following

as

against

the

revenue

construction

well

moves

itself

nationalization

annulled

nance

later,

China

positioned

This

the

of

1 . 3 :

The

signed

the

canal

Dam

at

Aswan.

The Suez (Tripar tite) War

The

nationalization

Similarly,

and

the

their

Algerian

Nasser

hostility

National

was

their

strengthened

closed

the

plan

On

to

29

an

the

ultimatum

to

ensure

as

had

and

the

story;

Within

a

world

the

American

This

and

for

UN

Arab

UN

war

in

It

a

had

cost

military

the

Canal

greatly

world.

Two

their

The

of

it

increased

Suez

been

in

the

story:

only

the

and

for

this

since

to

the

of

1955

Red

put

Sea.

together

on

of

was

was

verge

of

forces

Tiran

approximately

since

it

pronounced

a

proclaimed

as

3000

and

endangering

Africa,

a

a

He

took

resolution

Egyptian

the

soil.

their

following

(UNEF)

remain

to

open.

soldiers

British

political

home

“Arab”

journalist Edward R. Murrow in November 1956

into

France

Egyptian

at

Nasser being inter viewed by American

Egypt.

war.

the

major

both

an

of

world

force

▲

October

Union

withdrew

would

order

British

defend.

March

ended

popularity

in

to

from

peacekeeping

Straits

a

secured

until

31

and

were

positions

he

On

Soviet

of

in

complied,

support

allies,

They

forces

remained

However,

was

in

impossible

where

Canal

Israelis

the

issued

immediate

the

French

NATO

him.

the

French

expected.

the

his

advanced

the

The

conict

foreign

Nasser’s

and

of

introduced

the

imperial

emergency

lives

Zone,

had

and

west

Anglo–French

soldiers

that

the

Canal,

support

world

met

November

itself

Assembly

victory.

Indeed,

5

enter

withdrawal

an

he

Sinai

Canal.

had

Eisenhower

General

ensure

Arab

demanded

and

consulting

maintain

despatched

as

On

found

even

Israeli

British.

the

stake

access

British

the

which

to

furious.

of

the

a

therefore

It

east

along

Said,

worked.

would

not

Egypt.

the

the

to

eyes

December.

short

presence

the

immediate

UNEF

was

in

in

Israel’s

the

Israel.

miles

Egypt.

region

was

the

to

Nasser’s

had

attacked

day

refused,

Port

without

pressure

by

The

in

the

merely

to

demanding

Sinai.

acted

that

matter

year.

days

army

and

threatened

Eisenhower

peace

troops

USSR

also

countries

navigation

Egypt

by

Furthermore,

blocking

to

regime.

ten

attacked

landed

few

had

position

of

blow

connection

Israel

cause.

Israeli

Egypt

major

popularity

following

troops

decided.

the

President

Britain,

both

Britain

paratroopers

his

three

a

aggravated

thereby

the

was

historical

Front.

Nasser’s

The

their

freedom

been

France

and

the

1956,

a

was

Palestinian

from

to

of

Nasser

Straits,

Canal.

withdrawal

Canal

had

Liberation

overthrow

October

towards

to

the

also

enemy

the

Tiran

Representatives

a

of

French

victory

and

in

victory.

Egypt’s move towards the Soviet camp

The

for

relationship

both

social

sides.

justice

between

Although

and

on

Egypt

and

Nasser’s

more

than

the

USSR

policies

one

was

one

underlined

occasion

he

of

the

spoke

convenience

need

for

vindictively

43

1

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

of

capitalism

on

the

with

and

Soviet

trade

unionists

communists.

country

In

and

1955,

He

In

other

1958

money

he

the

to

offer

of

inuence

future

in

to

the

revealed

ideological

relations

Consequently,

offer

Egypt

started

in

a

January

United

States

the

entire

the

West

region.

and

the

USSR

western

of

the

nature

not

interfere

after

Soviet

to

he

leader,

inuence.

the

country,

1948

war,

needed

the

importance

extend

a

agreed

its

sphere

region

that

Khrushchev’s

Party

in

relationship:

with

the

crucial

Mediterranean,

this

another

nationalism.

because

Communist

of

of

communist

of

needed

of

with

Egypt.

loan

the

lled

based

clashes

interest

Arab

a

to

was

sphere

and

relationship.

assistance

rst

great

a

never

February

“...

differences

development

of

friendly

countries”.

1960

its

arms

for

the

to

imposed

which

and

Khrushchev

technical

of

the

must

working

inauguration

East

Congress

our

both

the

the

from

Khrushchev,

because

pragmatic

views

between

maintained

in

loyalty

supply

was

numerous

constantly

arms

Union

had

serving

embargo

project,

Nikita

of

their

to

Soviet

Dam

Middle

21st

the

arms

socialism

had

were

purchased

the

the

loan

the

prisons

communists

prepared

Egypt.

the

predominantly

1959

▲

was

of

regime

questioned

to

to

brand

his

his

had

Aswan

of

Egypt

statement

in

Due

turned

the

to

was

he

his

fact,

and

therefore

country

for

In

accused

however,

Czechoslovakia.

no

capitalists,

model.

and

Nasser

West’s

in

addition

and

was

May

it

had

This

to

cautiously

1958

the

was

1964.

the

This

as

the

created

a

the

loan.

The

guest

and

Soviets

of

agreed

Aswan

honour

relationship

far-reaching

portrayed

allies.

trod

October

Khrushchev

phase

concern

in

Nasser

In

ideological

division

at

caused

consequences

the

the

the

for

“enemy”

within

to

project

of

Arab

Monument of the Arab-Soviet Friendship,

countries

and

created

enemies

for

Nasser.

It

also

solidied

the

western

commemorating the completion of Aswan

countries’

relationship

with

Israel

because,

from

a

Cold

War

perspective,

High Dam

it

was

their

only

reliable

ally

in

the

region.

The United Arab Republic (UAR)

In

the

on

nal

the

play

in

that

section

concept

this

role.

African

foreign

rst

circle

doubt

the

Circle

The

but,

1956

policy

Suez

of

compatriots,

Egyptians

Although

with

Haykal,

of

44

a

Egypt

War

words

a

less

an

role

this

most

to

inter-Arab

with

and

to

a

to

it

the

the

Arab

he

extent,

said

of

it

is

himself,

all

these

dwelt

should

should

answer

consequence

some

As

place

and

Nasser

Egypt

responsibilities.

into

the

Egyptian

to

to

be

play

simply

Circle,

of

its

While

in

within

“There

circles

“took

international

him

Arab.

states

him

this

infallible

as

He

was

an

were

a

its

the

is

no

and

leader,

with

victory.

enchanted

to

their

“Arabism,”

and

his

that

Arab

not

threat

hero

it

insisted

“Arabism”.

for

role”.

of

savouring

victory

Arab

view

role

and

an

the

appreciated

Nasser,

or

role”

us”.

that

started

as

important

Nasser

an

Revolution,

belonged

and,

imprint.

as

region

grave

three

neighbouring

entity

close

Circle

the

“positive

question

Egypt

moment

Egypt”

the

which

all

of

what

shoulder

the

indeed,

dened

journalist

into

of

of

and,

to

propelled

this

chose

in

Egypt.

greatest

is

Philosophy

rhetorical

connected

had

“Arabs

a

pursued

Circle

leaders

and

Muslim

had

his

enjoying

were

The

wondered

for

the

it

closely

Nasser

the

these

authority,

and

left

He

course,

plans

Arab

most

book

world”

of

Nasser

he

the

instead

his

location,

that

that

circle

was,

Nasser’s

geographical

his

of

“place”.

“troubled

This

underlined

the

of

lifted

wrote

him

out

C H A P T E R

Arabism

no

state

and

or

pan-Arabism,

boundaries,

Salah

Bitar,

the

an

came

ideology

about

founders

of

that

during

the

sees

the

Baath

1 . 3 :

N A s s E R ’ s

Arabs

1940s

as

one

through

(Renaissance)

P O L I C I E s ,

nation

Michel

party.

19 5 2 – 19 7 0

with

Aaq

Arab

Nasser

Circle

advocated

similar

as

of

a

result

non-Arabs

in

of

The

his

in

not

outrage

history.

Philosophy

strength.

views,

of

These

at

To

the

as

a

the

follower

way

convince

Revolution,

of

Arabs

his

he

the

had

readers

outlined

Baath

been

of

the

the

movement

subdued

“need

Arab

but

by

for

unity”

nations’

Egypt

sources

were:

●

their

geographical

●

their

location

●

the

on

closeness

the

globe

to

one

giving

By

the

unity

time

but

These

that

the

of

military

of

the

them

and

it

access

Republic,

together,

held

In

a

The

Syrio–Egyptian

two

years

into

the

Egypt

submitted

Arab

into

a

in

the

Republic

such

agreement

ethnic

The

to

three

of

with

within

the

believed

and

The

in

Syrians

idea

the

tighter

and,

were

sent

secession

and

it

to

in

but

the

a

their

Jordan

them

and

other

second

Iraq,

a

a

that,

policies

was

once

into

was

in

at

UAR.

Within

incorporation

Union.

of

a

to

Syria.

to

Nasser

United

enter

unity,

mainly

this

In

time

April

fruition;

due

was

that

suffering

This

of

was

a

to

to

the

stable

was

from

therefore

brand

union

Syria.

United

born

counterweight

economy

their

the

imposed

the

chose

Egypt

Egyptians

for

of

came

heavy

the

Nasser

the

was

idea

and

never

members

proposed.

country,

The

Arabs

number

constitution

the

the

a

visit

short-lived.

from

location of the Arabic-speaking countries

Arab

Fearing

and

a

Nasser

whereas

planned

looking

put

Egypt,

became

by

Nasser

attempt

project

experiment

and

to

agreed

kept

“Arabism”

unstable

seemingly

divisions

(wrongly)

social,

political

established,

clearly

was

not

they

how

union.

collapse

warning

of

to

its

the

the

opposition.

and

an

a

the

that

were

their

increased

the

an

seceded

date

was

leadership.

the

was

became

was

its

seen

of

later

came

be

for

of

The Arab Nation: this diagram shows the

manner.

included

president

to

union

spoke

Shaken

that

they

nations.

socialism.

al-Muttahidah ,

the

their

only

Although

however,

Syria

of

communists.

Syrians

became

countries;

ruler

was

Syrians

later,

It

control

two

“stability”

had

consequently

of

export

region.

afnity

popular

the

simply

between

front

manner,

together:

signed,

the

Syria

ranks

that

economic

could

the

a

a

there

Circle

continents

unexpected

as

nonetheless

Syrio–Egyptian

between

managed,

but

at

the

that

1961

countries

cultural

the

case

Egypt.

hasty

not

take:

delegation

al-’Arabiyyah

proved,

wish,

was

with

well

a

he

unstable.

broad

as

ground

would

most

a

unity,

realized

1963

differences

failure

well

Arab

and

differences

country

had

in

In

three

the

project

alive,

union.

by

Nasser

September

a

ideological

and

Syrian

bringing

formal

this

somewhat

Syrians

and

to

union

for

elections

somewhat

a

the

parties

al-Jumhu ˉ riyyah

1958.

in

communists,

seeking

1962,

unity

governed

the

in

the

this

was

National

of

under

Charter

form

Syria

was

the

1958,

the

materialized

preconditions

February

abundance

the

states,

coups,

January

Arab

indeed

inuence

stringent

in

presented

dened

Arab

Baath

growing

in

he

also

ideas

Among

existed

Muslim

Circle

another

▲

oil

African

It

presence

American

excuse

following

to

was

in

that

had

also

the

troops

plunge

year

UAR

existing

a

to

Nasser

of

to

countries.

Lebanon.

further

to

the

the

the

keep

a

West,

British

Within

into

presented

repercussions

state

warning

Arab

Egypt

important

heads

which

troops

Egypt,

socialist

National

Syria’s

path

–

Charter.

45

1

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

The

by

failure

unity

Was

of

who

the

this

from

the

“I”

or

thinking

choice

to

to

now

you

be

revolution

the

with

...

I

that

only

I

and

have

authoritarian

be

and

way

Palace

In

to

character

lines

of

“I

our

...

road”.

is

of

be

Nasser’s

it

on

given

after

to

expression

was

words,

was

16

October

dissolution

chooses,

...

of

that

that

if

because

addresses

on

spend

everywhere

choice

it

the

Hopwood

Nasser

probably

other

Hopwood

conviction

not

Syria,

the

wrong.

with

idea

In

However,

about

been

was

UAR

chosen

an

my

this

had

right.

Egypt

that

have

ideas

obsession

that

speech

people

to

and

It

was

Derek

people

he

The

changes

Nasser’s

attitude

chosen

he

personally.

his

Nasser’s

Syria.

that

four

that

however,

but

times:

about

of

proceed.

the

the

my

our

to

Nasser

retained

admit

political

from

eight

thought

should

union,

to

he

to

remember,

of

extracts

recur

theirs,

refused

conviction

Syria.

“my”

blow

illustration

social

the

quotes

Presidential

union

to

major

possibility,

an

idea

Nasser’s

were

and

a

a

and

has

the

economic,

reforms

words

days

One

illustrates

the

as

Nation

initiated

point

was

UAR

experiment

Maybe.

imposed

these

union

the

Arab

UAR

had

better

of

the

the

power?

he

of

maintaining

I

the

the

past

wanted

theirs

the

best

...

I

road

my

say

of

underlines

regime.

The Yemen episode

Another

attempt

theocracy

however,

military

in

was

coup

establish

a

assistance

Nasser

were

drain

republic,

and

purpose

The

Yemeni

this

result

had

he

landed

at

civil

war

to

it

preached

Arab

in

an

unity

to

in

whom

to

for

a

embarrassing

spending

forces

as

into

to

lasted

this

Nasser’s

the

was

war.

that

situation,

on

went

a

to

soldiers,

This

a

war,

major

suffered

Furthermore,

war

years

whose

and

26 000

involved

never

popularity.

Nasser’s

decision

money

UAR

republican

to

sought

reforms

ght

ve

a

and

military

to

approximately

attributed

episode,

following

Yemen

economic

affect

Islamic

This

project,

sent

war

an

republicans.

unity”

and

The

victory

be

the

of

the

referred

poured

land

remained

and

loyalist

help

“Arab

being

of

1962,

whereas

ofcially

started

extent

nonetheless

The

Jordan,

the

height,

ended

out.

them.

In

leader/imam

much-needed

off

Yemen,

Peninsula.

disunity”.

the

his

was

to

North

Arabian

1967

of

The

slowly

some

himself

much-needed

until

taken

its

“Arab

and

part

unclear

episode

may

there,

as

with

the

soldiers,

money

were

of

broke

Arabia

nances.

soldiers

This

of

war

fought

because

fellahs

returned.

troops

they

came

part

overthrow

civil

justied

remained

60–70 000

to

Egyptian

Egypt’s

Egyptian

unity

proof

Saudi

help.

enormously

Arab

aiming

Nasser

on

at

southern

further

from

for

sent

which

the

forces.

decision

he

to

regretted.

ghting

war

Although

Arabs

rather

send

He

while

than

on

industrialization.

Confrontation with the State of Israel

Nasser’s

“Arab

account,

Declaration,

Jewish

consciousness”

when

the

people

soldiers

46

with

on

a

student

document

in

pro-Palestinian

tensions

as

posture,

was

newly

battlefront

had

started,

had

that

Palestine”.

Egypt’s

the

he

promised

This

“a

settled

to

throughout

neighbour,

his

against

national

“consciousness”,

present

twice.

according

demonstrated

in

his

personal

the

home

other

rule.

Israel,

and

Balfour

for

the

words

It

his

raised

put

Egyptian

C H A P T E R

Clashes

with

Israel

s ta r te d

in

19 55

w h en

the

1 . 3 :

N A s s E R ’ s

Isr a e li s

P O L I C I E s ,

19 5 2 – 19 7 0

re t a li a t ed n o n

against

Palestinian

border

incurs io n s

by

a tt ac k in g

a nd

a

de st r oyi n g

b e L

the

Egyptian

head q ua r ter s

in

Ga za ,

k il li ng

38

pe op le .

A l t ho u gh , a iryS

Nahariya

compared

with

th e

wa r s

to

come ,

th i s

ra i d

wa s

a

m in o r

Pipeline

inc i de n t ,

Qatsrin Tunnel

it

nonetheless

had

a

f a r- re a ching

imp ac t

on

N a ss e r’s

for e ig n Open

Sapir

Canal

Tzalmon Sea

of

Haifa

policy

as

a

whole.

F o l l o wi ng

thi s

event,

E g yp t

d ec ide d

to

Reservoir

de fy

Eshkol

Tiberias

the

arms

embargo

tha t

had

b ee n

put

in t o

e f fec t

after

th e

Y a r m

1 948

Kfar

war.

Czechoslova k i a

wa s

the

count ry

t ha t

re s pon d ed

to

t h e ir a

Beit

She’an

arms

but,

by

s ig ni ng

the

a g r ee m e n t

wi t h

them

in

Umm

revir

e

for

S

request

al-Fahm

n a

i na dv er tentl y

offer e d

the

So v i e t

ca m p

a

nadroJ

Nas s e r

n

1955,

e

August

Netanya

a r

card.

the

Suez

Crisis

of

1956,

the

position

of

Egypt

e t id e M

After

r

trump

r i v e r

Baruh

towards

Rosh

Ha’ayin

Tel-Aviv Jordan

Israel

hardened

rising

popularity

However,

in

Sinai,

after

the

considerably.

and

the

two

his

The

Israelis

belligerent

US/UN

discourse

intervention

countries

pursued

clearly

and

only

a

as

the

viewed

a

Nasser’s

major

threat.

presence

propaganda

of

UNEF

Jerusalem

war. Ashkelon

a e S

Zohar

January

convened

1964

in

a

summit

Cairo.

One

meeting

of

the

of

points

the

on

Arab

the

League

agenda

D

In

d a e

The “War over Water ”

was

was

the Be’er

Sheva Arad

plan

one

to

of

divert

the

the

Jordan

long-term

River.

causes

of

This

the

“War

1967

over

War.

Water”

As

a

would

result

of

be

Zeelim

the

Dimona

armistice

lines

drawn

up

in

1949,

Israel,

Jordan

and

Syria

had Yeruham

to

share

the

for

the

Jordan

each

waters

Valley

country,

of

the

Unied

was

Rivers

Jordan

Water

drawn

Plan,

up.

and

Yarmuk.

allocating

Although

a

In

1955

water

quota

the

plan

was

rejected

ahead

and,

with

Israel

by

the

Arab

completion

siphoning

League

of

its

water

nations,

National

from

the

Israel

Water

Sea

went

Carrier

of

project

Galilee.

The

in

1964,

January

the

started

meeting

in Egypt

Cairo

viewed

menacing

also

in

Israel

decided

such

Israel

a

Israel’s

to

way

with

put

as

sovereign

border,

League,

nothing

but

the

effect

reduce

by

as

threatening

“collective

into

to

responded

Israel’s

action

issue

that

Other

concrete

Arab

plan

Israel’s

stating

rights.

a

water

than

came

of

remained

military

that

such

and

a

supply

project

divert

by

35

would

on

threat

a

statement

preparations”.

would

clashes

the

issued

the

the

per

They

water

cent.

infringe

Syrio–Israeli

issued

by

the

Arab

unresolved.

▲

The route of the Israeli National Water Carrier

The 1967 War (The Six Day War)

The

on

1967

5

are

War

June.

complex

According

in

1

the

to

Between

as

Steven

prior

April

escalated;

MiG-21s

forces

and

were

incidents

with

a

pre-emptive

circumstances

and,

months

had

started

The

often

Cook,

to

this

and

in

in

two

May

May

case,

air

the

strike

Israelis

each

factors

clashes

the

side

pushed

towards

on

along

Israeli

Nasser

pressure

to

the

led

by

to

has

the

carry

its

Nasser

Israelis

out

own

to

this

action

narrative.

raise

the

stakes

event:

April

moving

put

Arabworld,

is

that

air

received

the

the

force

a

Syrian

N a s s e r,

the

Syrio–Israeli

shot

Soviet

down

report

b o r d e r.

acclaimed

Both

border

six

that

of

leader

Syrian

Israeli

these

of

the

react.

47

u k

C H A P T E R

took

of

away

Arab

the

unity,

unworkable:

rights.

It

people

end

The

their

also

the

of

lives

paid

was,

when

They

the

and

a

are,

unnecessary

also

was

the

19 5 2 – 19 7 0

idea

practice

to

give

occupied

existence.

most

the

wars

their

ones

subjecting

The

in

P O L I C I E s ,

up

the

But

their

Arab

in

the

unreal.

were

because

was

unwilling

suffered

They

N A s s E R ’ s

rulers.

while

powerful

who

savings

Nasser

for

often

ones

however,

when

more

Arab

seemed,

were

that

decisions.

meagre

were,

a

the

have

states

dreams

policy

of

may

Arab

them

as

some

it

dream

unprepared

their

moment

a

were

foreign

with

wars.

the

promised

people

rash

of

as

existing

therefore

dream

Egyptian

Nasser’s

the

was

and

the

autonomy

attractive

1 . 3 :

a

were

result

who

enjoyed

world

of

paid

declared.

economies

who

the

as

ones

to

nanced

the

his

with

They

euphoria

views.

Culture and Nasser ’s use of the media

“Throughout

[are]

to

be

new

expressed

national

ruler

to

tools

of

was

aware

and

Arab

rose

a

cinema

and

and

the

Even

the

50

oral

though

90

per

the

same

of

which

word.

tools

towns

a

an

Nasser

cent

low

sounds

given

message

spread

a

the

had

primary

per

with

and

a

excellent

and

receiving

75

people

values

and

opportunities

and

Nasser’s

values

were

Furthermore,

that

new

authoritarian

culture”

country

images

on

new

culture

children

in

language,

important

and

Egyptian]

based

for

educational

cent

in

written

way

national

primarily

tradition

Two

media

new

[the

Forging

useful

percentage

to

the

a

...

relations,

culture”.

“the

remained

than

shares

The

forging

this.

imperialism

social

becomes

support.

from

frontiers.

new

national

also

in

of

strong

world

new

Egypt

accessible

Egypt’s

a

his

expanded

districts.

more

in

against

establish

culture

increase

education

rural

struggle

to

persuasion

fully

greatly

rate

their

determined

in

the

literacy

were

that

travelled

message

far

the

beyond

were

the

radio.

The cinema

The

rst

and

since

Orient”.

industry

to

ll

full-length

In

Halim

cinema

Nasser

and

in

el

Nasser

up

a

spoke

to

words

of

Halim’s

of

as

masses.

the

the

Nasser,

movies

a

with

overcome

past

and

in

love

setting

the

class

painted

was

of

a

lady

star

men.

In

of

of

new

much

optimist

or

picture

in

and

of

The

the

or

a

the

el

lm

eager

of

Nasserist

1952,

a

the

star

where

new

Halim

Abd

era,

junta,

building

society

Haz

was,

quawmiyya

celebrated

romantic

than

not,

1927

of

ready-made

account

military

Abd

the

wealthier

not.

an

the

tharwa

played

audience

had

November

era”.

pre-revolutionary

an

in

in

well-established

he

in

the

art

produced

“Hollywood

a

also

Gordon,

lm

treasure,

often

only

but

melodramatic

He

boundaries,

an

the

the

together,

“importance

were

desperately

a

two

national

virtues.

the

Joel

been

as

not

year,

two

and

the

had

known

headquarters

voice

lower-middle-class

whether

a

the

singer

the

Egypt

found

lms

between

him

him

50

the

to

in

been

Putting

popular

meeting

lm

had

therefore

to

halls.

summoned

anointed

the

Abd

a

been

Egypt

inuence

Haz,

describes

had

1952

to

feature

1930s

producing

the

platform

el

the

him.

the

movies

and

falling

Depending

young

were

Nasserist

middle-

hero

man

critical

reforms.

of

on

would

the

▲

Abd el Halim Haz, photographed

in the 1960s

49

1

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

In

1961

the

popular

in

travelled

lm

the

industry

rest

beyond

of

the

was

nationalized.

Arab-speaking

Egyptian

Egyptian

world.

movies

Thus

were

Nasser’s

highly

message

borders.

The radio

Another

radio.

and

Free

outside

tool:

in

means

The

it

was

regions

Arabs)

the

where

was

for

a

15

hours

in

height

from

the

of

its

its

the

of

the

of

radio

were

and

as

his

way

of

heritage:

re-sung

throughout

promote

the

Arab

views,

Zionists

and

Alahmed

analysed

radio

served

propaganda.

the

announcer

and

then

listeners

The

its

an

state

of

all

language

distinct

to

as

from

public.

the

The

this

radio

turned

continued

winning,

radio

had

for

The

use

way

identity.

to

to

be

It

1967

out

that

“we”

to

out

its

to

clear

his

the

of

most

by

the

popular

most

Egypt’s

heard

served

and

as

a

tool

arch-enemies:

not

to

to

of

and

the

“Arab

the

as

lies

its

ammiyya,

it

world

one

as

closer

was

entity

also

and

unity”.

end

when

out,

the

Ahmad

Egyptian

defeat

them

brought

as

the

which

world.

Arabic,

Arab

how

in

reminded

Arab

This

the

broke

Lies,

dismiss

forget,

people

abrupt

the

illustrated

articles,

Arab

that

that

and,

were

were

that

ofcials.

War

listeners

a

described

sung

part

Truth

colloquial

an

his

Haz,

they

Do

done

the

to

letters

became

programmes

wataniyyat,

called

came

1967

the

3000

leaders.

idea

the

The

commentaries

referring

to

media

At

under

once

interviews,

relation

been

by

received

became

called

was

Jazeera.

directly

base”.

Halim

was

used

inuential

Nasser

programmes

had

radio

broadcast

announcer,

came

as

Nasser’s

become

outlived

el

The

other,

especially

the

half-hour

being

Al

have

broadcasts

rst

when

served

it

anti-Nasserist

Arabic

When

had

the

The

popularity

lies.

it

of

The

to

chief

songs

in

a

of

world.

reactionary

reaching

announce

when

by

of

of

radio

as

the

inside

propaganda

areas,

(Voice

was

most

reviews,

Abd

broadcasting

literary

station’s

out

read

truth”.

wrongs

used

the

interesting

forging

would

“the

two

to

its

known

especially

Anas

it

the

power

Their

Arab

was

both

useful

remote

1953

today

and

press

world.

Arab

al

Guidance.

his

and

station.

the

of

Said,

Cairo

in

1967

one

Arab

songs

Kulsum

through

Nasser’s

imperialists,

in

“reaching

the

July

in

exported

importance,

particularly

claimed

National

Patriotic

Umm

feature

the

commentary,

music.

as

of

4

were

its

Sawt

compared

Ahmad

based

of

on

station

day.

was

cultural

to

the

a

read.

become

of

accessible

lifetime

throughout

news,

such

not

being

Ministry

was

and

time

its

views

aware

radio

rst

of

had

every

Arabs

the

importantly,

attractive

the

world,

voice

mainly

singers

day

listeners

tutelage

The

could

end

popularity,

recognizable

Voice

for

the

Arab

Egyptian

fully

entertaining,

people

aired

By

which

were

country.

cheap,

programme.

tools

through

Ofcers

was

“truths”

Said

forces

were

massive.

The

purpose.

The “post-1967” Nasser

On

9

June

accepted

his

decision

citizenry”

50

1967

He

Nasser

appeared

responsibility

to

and

resign.

do

his

He

for

said

duty

as

on

Egyptian

Egypt’s

he

setback

planned

“any

other

to

television

( al

naqsab)

“return

citizen”.

to

a

broken

and

the

Millions

man.

announced

ranks

poured

of

the

out

C H A P T E R

on

to

back

the

his

streets

ourselves

In

the

of

also

cell

ensuing

August

Nasser

also

economic

down

his

March

used

he

“centres

relation

to

countries

the

followed.

and

as

the

air

against

occasion

to

stay

the

public

“until

arrests,

There

force.

a

outcry,

time

that

Nasser

we

and

was

trials

a

of

purge

19 5 2 – 19 7 0

took

can

rid

“those

of

high-ranking

Commander-in-Chief

Nasser;

discourse

power”

Arab

Saudi

to

he

re-evaluate

productivity

and

announced

other

such

accusations,

defeat

where

of

to

P O L I C I E s ,

committed

Amer

suicide

in

was

his

year.

the

socialist

response

N A s s E R ’ s

aggression”.

army

that

In

promised

conspiracy

sector,

1968

certain

the

the

of

and

months,

for

from

accused

in

protest.

enemy

responsible”

ofcers

in

resignation

1 . 3 :

a

be

had

reduced

“mandate

cleansed.

leaders.

Arabia.

He

With

some

seen

the

for

a

his

polices.

plunge,

interference

change”

Similar

now

of

sharp

of

the

to

the

ASU.

were

support

Israel,

the

toned

demanded

modications

needed

regards

and

In

he

of

however,

In

that

heard

in

wealthy

the

tone

TOK discussion remained

Israeli

same.

soldiers

prelude

what

the

to

his

in

In

March

Sinai.

greater

This

1969

resulted

superpower

successor

Anwar

he

in

interest

Sadat

started

a

bloody

in

would

the

war

of

attrition,

reprisals,

region,

but

which

it

is

attacking

was

also

a

precisely

This chapter on Nasser has made extensive

use of his book The Philosophy of the

achieve.

Revolution Falsafat al Thawra, published

in 1954. As

a

last

leader

act

was

Summit

who

underlined

extremely

meeting

Palestinian

crisis

was

the

tting.

In

convened

known

as

absolute

need

September

in

“Black

Cairo,

to

for

1970

Arab

an

address

September”.

unity,

Nasser’s

emergency

the

Nasser

a)

Arab

weaknesses of this book as a source.

Jordanian–

succeeded

in

b)

getting

both

King

Hussein

of

Jordan

and

Yasser

Arafat,

the

Evaluate the strengths and

chairman

Do you think Nasser ’s version of events

of

may have left cer tain things out? Why?

the

Palestinian

Liberation

Organization,

to

talk.

The

summit

concluded

c) its

work

on

28

September,

hours

before

Nasser

died

of

a

heart

Why do you think it was included in

attack.

this narrative? Hewas

▲

52

years

old.

Nasser mediating between Arafat and King Hussein

at the emergency Arab League

summit in Cairo on 27 September 1970

51

1

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

L TA

Research and communication

skills

Nasser ’s legacy

In

the

last

about

a

section

play

of

called

The

Six

Philosophy

Characters

of

in

the

Revolution,

Search

of

an

Nasser

Author

writes

written

by

the

The shaping of collective memory is Italian

dramatist

Luigi

Pirandello

(1867–1936)

in

1921.

The

play

is

sometimes prescribed, but it is often about

a

theatre

company

rehearsing,

when

suddenly

six

unnished

“hand picked” by the community itself. characters

arrive

on

the

scene

looking

for

an

author.

Nasser

considered

Look for an example of collective memory. himself

a)

How is this event remembered in

your country, in your town and by

your family?

b)

In the example of your choice, was the

“memory” prescribed or selected?

c)

always

about

role,

as

be

one

imagine

in

search

tired

down,

it

to

of

exhausted

nobody

else

Nasser’s

story? If so, why? Consider what goes

on

into the process of writing history?

contemporary

Egypt

and

the

imposed

–

obliterated

With

Nasser

signed

peace

world.

The

lm

the

all

with

had

survived

The

critics

and

claimed

as

his

this

on

is

“I

a

And

vast

our

Nasser

the

a

over

I

don’t

role

do

know

why

wandering

not

region,

frontiers

Egypt

whole.

looking

do

on

his

of

know

should

last

us

I

aimlessly

why

at

beckoning

56

his

that

this

settle

to

assume

out.

that

collective

the

the

“author”

or

and

–

in

marks

of

whether

role

between

Sadat

power

forfeited

came

long-lasting

to

t

1952

the

Egypt’s

Nasser’s

him,

and

pursuit

both

no

one

1970

of

his

world

rule.

Anwar

seemingly

showing

left

“actor”

forged

is

political

and

had

an

country

to

has

Whether

for

know

successor,

Israel

debate,

in

it.

opportunism

we

monopoly

entitled

in

wrote:

there

play

obstacles

Egyptians

Nasserite

rule

was

himself

gone,

forces’

he

region

to

weary,

and

What

view

armed

and

about

region

history

know.

this

actor

short

Nasser

a

in

an

and

ambition

ever

actor

can”.

relatively

personal

collective memory

that

of

roaming

Are there other “narratives” of the same

will

such

–

Egypt’s

turned

The

–

while

maintaining

liberalized

dominant

the

page.

popularity

nostalgia

the

of

role

In

the

in

1996,

lm

surrounding

the

economy,

the

the

Arab

however,

reopened

Nasser

era

memory.

How a whole community selects its remembered

Nasser’s

“inclination

to

solitary

decision-making”

memory collectively; what a community that

his

rash

and

compulsive

policies

had

endangered

chooses to remember. Egypt’s

independence

emphasized

two

sides

freedom.

was

did

not

Nasser

restricted,

were

52

social

differ

had

the

repressed.

and

justice

nally

and

was

his

on

the

established

press

was

led

to

stand

the

loss

against

question

of

authoritarian

censored

and

all

of

territory.

imperialists.

democracy

rule,

forms

where

of

Nasserites

Where

and

the

political

pluralism

opposition

C H A P T E R

1 . 3 :

N A s s E R ’ s

P O L I C I E s ,

19 5 2 – 19 7 0

Source skills

M.

Nasser: some verdicts

With

the

reference

value

and

to

their

origins

limitations

of

and

the

purpose,

four

Rabi’

in

his

book

Personality

of

Abdel

Vatikiotis,

Nasser

Shakhsiyyat

Nasser ),

Abdel

1966,

Nasir

quoted

in

(the

PJ

assess

extracts

and

his

Generation

below.

Source C Source A

Nasser’s He

pushed

Egypt

ahead,

but

soon

let

his

the take

over,

leading

to

the

disaster

of

5

June

1967

a

zaim

[Arabic

for

the

courageous

one]

Egyptians.

into

a

prophet

whom

no

one

could

little

may

have

was

all

national

in

one.

gains

recorded

of

history.

In

him

Egypt

Suez

were

ever

was

embodied

since

the

the

all

anaesthetized

The

that

fact

is

remains

politically

that

his

lasting,

autocracy

even

provided

the

outlines

of

social

though

and

change

in

the

future.

the

country

turning

have

criticize.

economic He

well

he

it turned

may

…

founded From

charisma

fantasy

point.

had

It

a

PJ

Vatikiotis,

Nasser

and

his

Generation.

led

Source D him

to

believe

imperialism

would

not

protected

not

that

and

have

by

revolutionary

that

had

happened.

Providence.

victorious

it

in

not

Egypt

been

Victory

Everyone

vanquished

for

was

Nasser

his

forgot

He

this

hopes,

victory,

Egypt

overwhelmed

dreams

victories

was

of

anthems,

Hussein

Dhu’I

Fiqar

Sabri

in

Rose

–el

Youssef

Egyptian

weekly

July

Tawg

signalled

signalled

king

and

us

…

with

and

which

which

their

lms,

he

…

the

underlay

the

repeatedly

pipes

which

and

and

made

drums,

us

as

a

great

industrial

state,

see

leaders

world…

and

the

strongest

of

the

military

1975.

Source B

the

promises

magic

newspaper) ,

power

He

his

revolution

songs

developing

18

to

with

(an ourselves

independent

and

the

announced

1956!

us

it

to

the

and

exited

smashed,

to

the

nation

army

he

and

departed;

from

political

the

and

it

awoke;

moved;

he

he

berated

country,

parties

it

and

signalled

to

imperialism

feudalism

they

1960,

he

were

and

it

was

which

al

El

the

Middle

Hakim,

Sultan

El

explored

regarded

PJ

in

as

a

Vatikiotis,

East.

Egyptian

Haer

the

mild

and

his

his

Perplexed

legitimacy

critique

Nasser

author;

(The

of

of

play

in

Sultan),

power,

Nasser.

could

Quoted

be

in

Generation

dissolved.

53

Exam-style questions

1

To

what

2

Examine

and

How

4

“In

what

rule

in

6

How

7

To

54

To

of

Nasser’s

the

was

rise

media

Nasser

politics,

is

this

to

in

power

due

spreading

to

popular

Nasser’s

support.

message

inside

extent

did

in

Nasser

knew

statement

Egyptian

dealing

with

the

his

opposition?

language

of

the

people.”

To

valid?

society

change

as

a

result

of

Nasser’s

Egypt?

successful

what

benet

8

role

successful

extent

was

Egypt.

domestic

what

To

the

outside

3

5

extent

extent

was

did

Nasser’s

the

policy

in

relation

nationalization

of

the

to

the

Suez

State

of

Israel?

Canal

Egypt?

what

extent

was

Nasser’s

objective,

“Egypt

for

Egyptians”,

met?

Answering exam questions

Question

To

what

extent

was

Nasser’s

rise

to

power

due

to

popular

support?

Analysis

The

rst

thing

understand

parts

The

in

to

the

order

do

before

question.

to

writing

You

understand

introductory

the

can

what

paragraph

must

introductory

break

the

the

paragraph

question

requirements

show

that

you

down

of

have

the

is

to

into

two

question

understood

are.

the

question.

1.

The

“rise

to

power”

circumstances

popularity

previous

A

‘rise

that

and

part

of

the

allowed

the

question

Nasser

methods

they

and

requires

the

used

to

Free

knowledge

Ofcers

to

of

the

gain

challenge/overthrow

the

regime.

to

power’

essay

should

not

cover

the

period

after

the

‘rise

to

power’.

However,

in

stages:

power’

Nasser,

in

the

when

overcame

his

they

The

an

coherent

a)

First

rival,

ruler

command

evaluation

the

to

gather

Then

to

prove

You

are

the

evaluate

also

argument

a)

the

not

Based

you

on

will

support

Finally,

need

want

to

to

being

and

a

the

as

be

King.

In

Neghib,

rulers

and

the

second

and

came

Nasser

‘rose’

stage,

to

to

‘rose

power

to

Nasser

power,

as

an

extent”

You

are

and

therefore

evidence

come

each

asked

to

of

to

or

the

of

to

the

end

being

factors

question

with

a

calls

for

relevant

and

asked:

that

helped

the

Free

power.

piece

support’

part

needs

of

evidence

to

see

whether

they

not.

provide

evidence

that

would

back

an

–

the

evidence

proving

that

Nasser’s

rise

was

due

to

support

to

popular

evidence

conclude

or

what

counter-argument

due

the

General

Ofcers

counter-argument:

argument

popular

b)

“to

to

authoritarian

Free

Egypt.

the

‘popular

other

the

arguments

conclusion.

Ofcers/Nasser

b)

of

term,

of

many

stage,

overthrew

main

unchallenged

2.

like

rst

–

evidence

proving

that

Nasser’s

rise

was

support.

you

whether

have

found

‘Nasser’s

and

rise

to

provided

power’

in

was

your

due

essay,

to

popular

not.

a

large

number

selective.

present

medium-term

You

these.

and

of

factors

need

They

also

can

immediate

be

led

to

to

Nasser’s

choose

broken

factors;

they

the

down

can

rise

order

into

also

be

to

in

power,

which

you

you

long-term,

divided

into

55

SS

S K I L L S

S E C T I O N

foreign

and

domestic

importance

all

cases,

or

all

question

they

the

and

factors.

can

factors

be

They

follow

you

supported

a

can

choose

by

be

straight

to

classied

forward

include

appropriate

by

their

degree

chronological

need

to

be

of

order.

relevant

to

In

the

evidence.

Sample answer

On

July

23rd

1952

coup.

Amongst

oce

until

of

internal

and

a

his

numb er

form

His

a

personal

This

power

essay

and

The

factors

coup

popular

to

ocers

Gamal

base

due

turn

will

to

the

to

Free

be

Ocers’

had

a

was

the

the

what

his

power

rid

were

due

to

a

a

of

to

bloodless

and

a

followed,

his

the

and

Nasser

popular

in

1952

and

undisputed

partly

in

through

opponents

due

well-organised

helped

remain

combination

unpopular

that

rule

in

leader

b ecoming

to

that

due

was

years

through

elements

they

as

himself

thus

incapacity

Egypt

adversaries

two

to

of

emerge

their

people,

favour

various

extent

to

the

able

adversaries’

to

rise

In

Faruq

would

rendered

success.

Nasser

events

King

Nasser

amongst

his

evaluate

determine

overthrew

Abdel

that

to

manoeuvres

partly

capacity

machine.

total

tactical

was

of

1970.

military

favourable

success

in

external

the

of

group

ocers,

death

and

allowed

a

the

to

ruler.

his

propaganda

in

his

quest

for

support.

Examiner comments

The

introductory

●

contextualise

●

address

the

●

present

an

●

offer

In

this

a

2.

addressed

3.

set

the

subject

outline

example

established

the

should:

question

clear

1.

paragraph

line

of

the

the

time

of

of

an

what

is

argument

to

come

and

introductory

counter-argument.

paragraph,

the

student

has:

context

question

limits

by

showing

awareness

that

it

is

a

‘rise

to

power’

question

56

4.

distinguished

5.

shown

between

awareness

for

the

the

two

need

stages

to

of

‘coming

evaluate

each

to

power’

side

of

the

argument.

2

C u b a

–

C a s t r o

the gll cnex

Cuba,

145

was

a

small

a

Spanish

1898,

when,

forced

island

and

remove

all

its

of

a

was

the

resource

US

be

situated

the

several

of

their

neighbour,

about

of

Florida,

centuries

US,

the

control

troops

closely

States,

coast

the

relinquish

politicians

United

to

off

help

always

powerful

1820s,

to

for

the

to

that

the

colony

with

island

miles)

Spanish

fate

Cuba

(90

the

Cuba’s

as

Caribbean

kilometres

and

until

the

ofcials.

intertwined

and

had

even

sought

viewing

the

to

early

of

as

times,

ofcially

gaining

its

independence

in

1902,

Cuba

took

almost

another

for

the

Cuba

as

a

as

to

Cuba

be

Cuba

left-wing

a

both

Its

as

and

ally

1959

a

economic

American

threat

as

a

to

source

their

of

movements

the

nuisance

(from

Castro

dangerous

by

Latin

nationalist

After

potential

valuable

as

means.

state.

Fidel

government

crushed

governments

them.

when

puppet

saw

military

a

self-governing

1959,

Soviet

for

1961

to

the

Union

USA,

1962)

and

from then,

Spain

USA

viewed

resisted

of

the

needed

pro-American

that

truly

from

the

and,

then Despite

power

that

at

a

revolution

Batista,

saw

exploited.

become

enemy

hope

add

island

the

neighbours

with

as

to

After

gained

Cubans

of

years

after

the

Cuban

Missile

Crisis

of

1962,

as

a

60 dangerous

and

uncontrollable

maverick.

Timeline – First War of Cuban Independence: 1868–78

Abolition of slavery in Cuba

1886 – Second War of Cuban Independence:

1879–80

1895–1898 – Third War of Cuban Independence 1895–98.

[Cuban War of Independence]

First US Occupation of Cuba; Cuba nally 1898–1902 independent in 1902

The Platt Amendment, dening the terms 1901 of US–Cuban relations

The Machado dictatorship

1927–33

Machado ousted by coup (Sergeant’s

1933

Revolt); replaced by Dr Grau; US prepares

Batista forces Grau to step down and to invade

gains more power; new (conservative) 1934

government

New Cuban constitution established; 1940 Batista wins presidential election Grau beats Batista’s designated successor

in presidential elections; Batista empties

1944

the Cuban treasury and ees to the USA

1948

Prio wins presidential election

Batista’s coup; promises fair elections

1952 in 1954

Attack on Moncada; Castro arrested;

Manifesto of the Revolutionaries of 1953 Prisoner amnesty – Castro brothers go to

Moncada to the Nation (Moncada

Mexico; meet Camilo Cienfuegos and

Programme) published 1955

Che Guevara

57

2

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

Movimiento 26 de Julio (M-26-7) created 1956 M-26-7 organizes unsuccessful general Granma expedition; defeat for Castro; strike; Batista convinced he can still win guerrilla war in Sierra Maestra

Failure of Operation Verano

1958

Castro enters Havana

Batista resigns and ees to Dominican

Republic 1959

Elections suspended “temporarily”;

Manuel Urrutia becomes president

US bans some trade with Cuba; INRA established; Agrarian Reform USSR signs trade deal with Cuba Act passed 19 60 US-owned oil reneries in Cuba refuse to Urrutia resigns as president; Osvaldo rene Soviet crude oil Dor ticós takes over as new president

US-owned oil reneries nationalized by Cuba

Huber Matos arrested for being US increases trade bans on Cuba; Cuban anti-communist sugar expor ts to USA cut; USSR buys

surplus to save Cuban economy Cuban Literacy Campaign launched

Cuba nationalizes some US-owned

CIA launches unsuccessful invasion (the businesses

Bay of Pigs); Castro announces Cuban Castro at UN General Assembly; Castro Revolution as socialist delivers his First Declaration of Havana

19 61

Political par ties in Cuba dissolved; leftspeech; close friendship with Khrushchev;

wing anti-Batista groups merge to form the all US businesses in Cuba nationalized;

Integrated Revolutionary Organizations establishment of Committees for the

(ORI) – which becomes the Communist Defence of the Revolution (CDRs)

Par ty of Cuba (PCC) in 1965 US trade embargo on expor ts to Cuba

Fabián Escalante removed from power

19 62

Cuban Missile Crisis

19 65

The Camarioca Exodus

New constitution announced; creation of

the National Assembly of People’s Power

1976 (Poder Popular)

Castro becomes president of Cuba 1980

The Mariel Boatlift

First direct elections to the National 1993 Assembly

1994

The Malecón Exodus

The National Assembly makes socialist 20 02 form of government permanent

20 03

Fidel Castro resigns as president, ending 20 08 49 years in power; his brother Raúl Castro

takes over

58

Arrest of Varela Project activists

2.1

Castro’s rise to power 1959

Cncepl ndending

Key questions

➔

What were the main social, economic, and political factors that created the

situation in which Castro could come to power?

➔

To what extent was Castro’s rise to power due to his own traits and actions

(as opposed to pre-existing socio-economic or sociopolitical factors)?

Key concepts

➔

Continuity

➔

Change

Havana

La

Mariel

Matanzas

Habana

Pinar Matanzas

del

Santa

Clara

Yaguajay

Rio

Las

Villas

Camagüey

Camagüey

Oriente

Bayamo Sierra Moncada Maestra

Guantanamo Santiago

de

▲

Cuba

Cuba in the early 20th century, showing the six provinces and major cities

Hw did C ke cnl f C?

The

actions

and

the

charismatic

to

take

failed

which

and

world

of

more

Fidel

than

Castro

50

years.

have

To

helped

to

understand

shape

how

l a w y e r- t u r n e d - r e v o l u t i o n a r y - t u r n e d - l e a d e r

control

attempt

he

words

for

was

of

to

Cuba

do

so,

in

1959,

we

need

within

to

only

examine

six

the

years

was

of

context

Cuba

this

his

able

initial,

within

operating.

59

2

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

During

the

19th

dependent

on

corporations

had

been

owned

primarily

provinces,

range,

a

ocean

also

in

and,

Cuba,

more

too,

of

late

by

in

black

the

west,

the

most

In

1886

in

slaves

and

a

in

revolt

This

30

had

per

to

off

descendants

impotence

to

a

they

main

in

the

was

refuge

and

more

six

mountain

exacerbated

ethnic

easternmost

island’s

eastern

economically

east

far

the

trading

found

marked

US

immigration

Maestra

and

entirely

USA.

while

divide

were

the

the

in

begin

the

his

province.

divide

co nti nued

and

194 0 s .

the

cent

ports

in

the

those

east

likely

in

of

to

province,

by

were

division

provinces,

chose,

in

July

the

l i te r a cy

Cub a ’s

political

to

relegated

by

in

it

e mula te

is

lives

in

mainly

enjoy

was

witnessing

the

and

a ll

ha r dl y

Jos é

of

is

pol it i c s

the

in

his

Martí

stirring

up

the

in

so c ia l

for

th at

s t a rt

José

O ri e n t e

fa c t or s

former

poverty

Ba t i st a

l imit e d

194 0s ,

a nd

the

by

a c c ou n t e d

th e se

Cuba,

why

rulers

s u rpr i si n g

Martí

in

but

crippling

F ul g en c i o

sp it e

Wit h

This

Cu ban

in

of

Spanish

for

C uba

une mpl oy ed .

to

the

B at i s ta

r ate s

to

provinces.

s upp or t

195 0s ,

slavery

independence,

inuenc e

di s s a ti s fa cti on,

195 3 ,

abolished

for

against

mas s

imp l e me nted

lowes t

of

By

calls

eastern

war

eng e nd e r i ng

nally

the

were

Oriente

severe

Oriente

of

stave

improvements

still

rebellious

slaves

living

where

island

Sierra

Cuba’s

was

Oriente,

government

century,

1930s

there

Spanish

1895,

in

that

almost

the

European

neglected

Escaped

effort

their

social

20th

the

an

political

chose,

the

was

with

revolts.

the

partly

and

and

slave

of

wooded

Cubans

advantages.

poorest

part

geographical

meant

island.

trade

plantations.

heavily

This

economy

and

politically

century,

most

descent

the

land.

the

goods

western

which

19th

with

the

socio-economic

many

country’s

Cuban

lawless,

frontier

west

the

Spanish

to

currents,

the

by

the

many

separated

was

undeveloped

the

century,

slave-produced

pr ovin c e

a l m o st

l ea di n g

Fi de l

to

C as t r o

r e vo lu t i on

in

province.

Cuban independence from Spain

From

wars

1868

to

third

who

and

Martí

of

was

accept

When

hand

April

to

was

i nde pe nde n c e

re l inquis h

insp ir e d

a cti on

less

No r th”

relinquishe d

were

a nd

than

1898)

troops

the

the

–

the i r

immed i a te ly

occupation.

to

ce l eb ra ted

strug g l e ,

the

C uba n

by

as

US A

j oi ne d

–

n ot

on

r e pla ce d

M ar t í

war

Cu ba

by

on

in

US

the

fou gh t

is l and.

n a t io n al

being

a

i n sp ir ed

re m o val

na t io n al is t s

the

on

( 18 53– 1 895 ),

gr e ate s t

m ar t yrd om

wha t

m ovem e nt

ho ld

M a rt í

compl et e

C uba n

hol d

Jos é

De s pi t e

hi s

the

t h e ir

C uba’s

i nd e p ende nce”.

in

nally

US

60

Cuban

their

Colossus

wa r

killed

the

S p a ni s h

become

nothing

(by

in

1898 ,

the

nal

would

Apostle

to

to

force

had

ha d

t h e ir

of

man

–

“the

man,

fo ll ower s

Sp ani sh .

the

re fer r ed

D e c e m be r

t ro ops ,

the

ga i ne d

si de .

th e

hero

mil it a r y

his

th re e

Th e

The

to

“ Th e

S pa ni s h

189 8,

h e ra l din g

upp er

as

but

the

their

Fi rs t

C H A P T E R

2 . 1 :

C A s T R o ’ s

R i s E

T o

P o w E R

19 5 9

Source skills

Car toon from Puck Magazine, April 1901

▲

This

after

American

the

Platt

cartoon

caption

reads:

an

choice.”

easy

was

Amendment

“Good

published

of

March

governance

vs

a

3

month

1901.

Compare

by

The

US

later

revolution…

and

this

in

this

What

can

character

the

you

see?

Who

represent?

or

What

what

is

does

4

in

With

the

image?

What

does

trying

to

it

mean?

What

message

is

F

the

Identify

between

relations

statement

Kennedy,

in

the

the

the

two

20th

made

quoted

similarities

views

of

century.

each

happening

reference

value

of

US–Cuban 2

to

John

chapter.

differences

US–Cuban 1

source

President

the

to

this

its

origin

source

relations

in

to

the

and

an

purpose,

historian

20th

assess

studying

century.

artist

convey?

Cuba and the USA

During

for

an

the

1880s,

empire

1

the

2

pressure

to

increasing

from

investments

3

US

the

century.

money

in

Cuba

nationalists

on

the

both

Cuba

opinion

up

and

public

when

during

a

efforts

an

been

1895,

of

with

towards

Cuban

revolts

corporations

Cuban

and

their

used

more

Cuba.

to

with

had

what

independence

supporting

to

involved

about

government

grew

nationalists

corporations

worried

American

visit

the

closely

US

America

towards

American

1898,

won

of

combined

opinion

the

political

intervention

against

in

Spanish

businessmen

desire

Cuba:

rule

with

Cuba

and

American

factors

public

American

had

By

major

US

intensity

in

increased

businesses

19th

three

drive

an

American

supportive

warship

Blaming

(the

the

Cuba

of

since

They

propaganda

military

Maine)

for

if

early

amounts

the

exerted

pressure

Activists

to

action

sway

after

from

public

The

February

mysteriously

its

of

Cuban

intervention.

military

USS

the

vast

interests.

Spanish

Martí.

happen

Spain.

their

anti-Spanish

José

invested

would

from

protect

like

blew

destruction,

the

61

2

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

US

government

forces

In

had

1902

Platt

the

declared

war

in

defeated

and

the

USA

formally

Amendment

Cuba

who

been

whenever

would

gave

it

follow

pro-US

USA

the

extremely

wealthy

exploited

majority.

US

dominated

economic

(1898–1902

1917–1922

Politicians

period.

Cuba

20th

and

all

who

only

set

century,

a

this

stage

which

and

US

support

gain

the

fostered

the

were

to

creating

of

in

political

the

idea

force

to

that

within

the

Intervention”

of

Cuba.

found

within

were

the

with

between

occupations

a

very

brief

noticeably

already

movements

enact

in

candidates

gap

US

policies

survived

of

place

the

removed

1901

impoverished

“Sugar

economic

the

trade

wide

their

of

but

and

a

stationed

that

Spanish

militarily

favour

anti-Americanism

on

use

in

increasingly

were

Cuban

based

was

rigged

so-called

US

or

the

intervene

evidence

the

Cuba.

corporations

troops

the

power

the

to

reminder

governments

for

change

US

the

August,

independence,

were

and

had

saw

its

right

further

Cubans

Cuban

the

socio-economic

As

By

occupied

economy,

minority

not

to

Naturally,

and

policies.

Cuban

which

did

the

Elections

1906–1909)

of

unable

The

corrupt.

system,

–

themselves

the

1898.

USA

Cuba

USA

wanted.

the

and

gave

the

April

only

political

of

present

in

the

way

to

achieve

change.

The Cuban Revolution (1933–1934) and the puppet

presidents (1934–1940)

The

corrupt

was

eventually

with

ensured

September

ofcers)

1933,

led

background

Cuba:

With

a

who

San

Martín,

prices,

and

declared

These

by

a

on

voting

proposed

rights

apart

serve

Cuba’s

left-wing

to

the

rank

to

needs

elements,

USA,

of

so

y

for

and

the

this

A

null

to

Chief

The

USA

promise

protests

the

of

and

of

own

an

by

of

ofcers.

impoverished

inuential

Machado

headed

Cuba”

by

man

The

USA.

Chibás

the

the

and

and

The

his

and

Grau

with

wages,

new

the

a

lower

government

would

Forces

right-wing

were

of

leaders

to

best

the

not

and

palatable

with

new

the

Carlos

provisional

reforms

again

more

be

Colonel

this

economic

strikes

how

policies

Ribas,

US

government

fellow

about

recognized

and

workers’

promised,

higher

provisional

Armed

more

social

resigned

Ramón

void.

purpose

quickly

Dr

was

inequities,

Grau

of

the

economy

Revolt”

their

politically

corporations

pressure,

support

met

Great

protests

from

Furthermore,

and

Eduardo

the

(non-commissioned

arrested

most

“new

the

of

Cuban

and

1920s

Zaldívar.

action.

placating

(now

and

social

commonality

as

NCOs

the

y

women.

the

the

been

“Sergeant’s

government,

to

worried

such

chose

student

end

on

of

had

impact

strikes

the

government

military

while

Montefur.

government

Renewed

a

Batista

colonel)

Mendieta

an

under

achieve

US

the

stenographer

become

the

was

students

army

but

with

Machado

protests

Crash)

army

professor.

changes

began

of

Batista

Amendment

threatened

fall

to

from

government

to

the

provisional

university

Platt

however,

Fulgencio

a

Street

students,

mixed-race

went

Gerardo

Student

brutality,

group

support

government,

the

struggling

a

of

1933.

Wall

the

point,

encouragement

replaced

democratic

62

to

Sergeant

was

for

when

by

in

police

1929

turning

decided

were

the

support

The

dictatorship

habitual

(after

wide

workers.

in

brutal

overthrown

Machado’s

Depression

They

and

died.

met

with

C H A P T E R

police

and

of

1930s

the

real

In

power

an

power

(such

This

weaknesses

electoral

the

the

played

of

the

success

the

to

post

the

the

of

was

imposed

“puppet

armed

the

of

Batista’s

and

of

Police

hands

presidents”,

the

presidents”)

government

corruption

C A s T R o ’ s

R i s E

T o

P o w E R

19 5 9

governments

found

that

the

forces.

University

Chief

of

“puppet

in

law

the

violence,

levels

into

as

and

controlled

as

increased

politics.

Batista

reduce

that

martial

referred

with

to

gangs

simply

brutality,

(often

lay

effort

armed

of

army

2 . 1 :

in

with

Havana),

within

by

bribed

Havana

Cuban

continuing

thus

paving

some

but

this

society

to

the

of

the

positions

show

way

plan

and

the

for

his

own

1940.

Signicant individuals during Castro’s rise to power

then President of Cuba 1940–1944 and 1952–1959;

José Mar tí (1853–1895)

fostered links between Cuba and US Maa; noted for his A key gure in the Cuban independence movement;

regime’s brutality and corruption in the 1950s; ed to killed in battle by the Spanish. Politicians during the

Dominican Republic in 1958 and died in Spain. Republic of Cuba (1902–1959) regularly attempted to

Eduardo René Chibás Ribas (1907–1951)

position themselves in the public consciousness as the

ideological heir of Mar tí. Cuban radio presenter and politician; set up the socialist

Partido Ortodoxo in 1947; by late 1940s became strongly

Gerardo Machado (1871–1939)

opposed to communism; expected to win election of 1952 A general during the Cuban War of Independence

but Batista launched his coup before votes were cast; killed (1895–1898); President of Cuba (1925–1933); pressured

himself live on air. by the US to resign during the Cuban Revolution of 1933.

Ernesto “Che” Guevara (1928–19 67) Àngel Castro y Argiz (1875–1956)

Argentine doctor; anti-imperialist; Marxist (although the Spanish immigrant to Cuba; self-made Cuban planter;

extent of this is disputed); rebel leader during Sierra Maestra father of Fidel Castro.

campaign; declared “one of the 100 most inuential people

Dr Ramón Grau San Mar tín (1881–19 69) of the 20th century” by Time magazine.

A popular university lecturer who led the Revolutionary Francisco “Frank ” Paìs (1934–1957)

Directorate (1933–1934); leader of the Par tido Auténtico;

A schoolteacher who joined M-26-7 after Castro’s “History President of Cuba 1933–1934 and 1944–1948.

will absolve me” speech; organized urban resistance to

Fulgencio Batista y Zaldívar (1901–1973) Batista’s regime; led Santiago uprising of November 1956;

A mixed-race, working class army sergeant; helped lead

his arrest and murder by police led to biggest spontaneous

the Sergeants’ Revolt (1933–1934); became Chief of Sta,

display of public hostility to Batista since the coup in 1952.

Batista’s presidency, 1940–1944

Batista

His

was

humble

able

background,

Cuba’s

rst

non-white

working

and

to

was

their

bribe

–

learning

His

and

the

support.

that

presidency

introducing

he

of

This

the

saw

a

and

was

him

laws

and

the

after

draw

and

he

on

of

was

union

true

placating

–

to

his

the

the

him

the

society.

peasant

army.

support

of

As

the

disenfranchised

to

improve

enhanced

leaders.

the

soldiers,

by

The

pay

which

Batista’s

result

was

that

him.

pro-American,

communist

reforms

Cuban

non-white

loved

his

of

impoverished

joined

of

enabled

genuinely

social

an

majority

support

remain

while

to

from

prospects

clergymen,

Cubans

write

military

popular

cross-section

came

able

formed

the

wide

he

promotion

ideologies

labour

read

which

control

from

helped:

to

ruler,

journalists,

pro-capitalism

by

support

certainly

population,

convinced

Batista’s

gain

non-white

classes.

him

efforts

he

only

conditions

won

to

origins

intended

supporters

to

redress

the

63

2

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

economic

“a

imbalance

modern

members

owners)

(the

Second

to

as

boosting

foreign

Cuban

and

and

the

citizen.

in

War

for

This

(especially

Cuba’s

there

was

economic

to

proved

still

a

bonanza

pre-war

and

a

as

but

unions

blessing

and

mill

through

denounced

of

for

the

wane

that

Batista’s

sugar)

benet

to

by

resemble

fascists.

majority

began

to

powerful

bargaining

(especially

tangible

levels,

by

labour

Grau)

the

began

industrialists,

prots

exports

Although

Cuba

economically

owners,

and

communists

economy.

returned

most

plantation

(1939–1945)

demands

Batista’s

the

monopolies

The

corporations,

demand

longer

barons,

their

society.

where

opponents

World

government

thus

Cuban

state”,

ministries.

detractors

The

cattle

maintained

government

his

of

corporate

for

the

after

time

skyrocketed,

prots

the

went

average

war

Batista

ended

was

no

power.

The Auténtico presidencies, 1944–1948 and 1948–1952

In

1944

When

Batista

it

election

a

large

to

Grau

portion

diplomatic

Cuban

and

in

an

the

it

had

By

with

charismatic

of

a

and

the

traditional

in

Havana

sports.

In

support

private

was

with

base

a

supercial

a

similar

the

1920s

student

one

for

and

in

or,

waned

Grau

had

support

drawn

acted

they

1930s.

when

Havana,

also

used

wealthy

His

successor,

the

same

the

vein.

National

during

there

not

his

socio-economic

president

involved

in

by

1948

candidate

had

1947,

seen

their

attracted

on

US

to

the

change

was

at

middle

as

in

used

reforms

state

class)

a

had

of

On

played

during

time

survive

The

the

a

force.

Grau’s

that

to

of

and

with

police

that

gangs

director

leadership

at

having

still

at

a

least

left-wing

violence

that

1940–1945.

in

favour

owners,

Prío

“the

Grau’s

political

against

Castro,

of

of

Germany

university.

years

Carlos

or

Abteilung

in

violence,

violent

times,

Fidel

became

go

(whose

party

plantation

administration

had

acts

police

resurgence

boom

businessmen,

at

alone

a

rst

the

of

Sturm

time

was

economic

from

bribery

in

tainted

would

professional

murder.

therefore

founded

the

Auténticos

the

be

absentia

landscape

corruption,

and,

to

by

nancially

presidential

been

with

identied

Ruz.

of

Socialist

and

failed,

Auténtico

This

the

a

in

the

USA

presidency

Ortodoxos

chief

bodyguards

and

the

as

the

resembled

attempt

force

during

such

Violence

was

of

One

supporters

from

as

that

abandoned

of

his

as

president.

lose

the

continued

who

Castro

to

(as

political

had

The

methods

provided

Hitler’s

assassination

parties

had

that

level,

role

opponents

they

who

as

would

Senate

stand

student

continued.

reward

were

army

political

Batista

Ortodoxo,

Alejandro

appointments

return,

law

Grau’s

Cuban

government.

down

emigrated

Cuban

to

the

Partido

young

bribery

to

time

step

intention

leave

the

communists,

Fidel

Cuban

and

to

The

begun.

to

to

successor

Batista

approval

this

Batista’s

world:

was

even

Chibás’s

the

obliged

chosen

treasury.

elected

grudging

to

his

Auténticos,

time)

being

Eddy

alternative

that

Cuban

election.

with

presidency

Batista was still convinced that he enjoyed

of

before

intimidation,

resorting to increasingly dictatorial methods,

the

talents

The

Fulgencio Batista during the 1950s. Despite

his

association

Cuba

▲

of

Grau’s

1952

changed,

as

and

politics,

getting

the

constitutionally

apparent

cables

handicapped

in

was

became

of

and

ensuring

US

Socarrás,

most

the

corporations.

continued

polarized,

in

corrupt,

the same popularity with the average Cuban

violent

and

undemocratic”

since

1901.

The

1952

elections

were

ercely

people as he had during his rst presidency

contested,

with

support

for

the

Auténticos

of 1940–1944.

pushing

64

Batista

into

a

distant

third

place.

and

Chibás’s

Ortodoxos

C H A P T E R

2 . 1 :

C A s T R o ’ s

R i s E

T o

P o w E R

19 5 9

Batista’s coup, March 1952

As

the

election

protect

bribe

of

during

of

a

their

his

Chibás,

and

on

was

10

000

radio

1952,

met

he

down

live

he

as

was

Maa

in

act

from

since

the

Prío

In

announced

on

air.

when

the

main

to

Socarrás

August

his

a

suspicions

months

Batista

1930s)

to

political

for

commercial

Seven

a

1951,

(Unfortunately

during

intended.)

correct

commanded

resistance

live

(unsuccessfully)

Carlos

Batista.

occurred

had

proved

of

Chibás

himself

he

sought

President

favour

Eddy

shot

dramatic

had

little

US

offering

show,

then

broadcast

loyalty

the

by

stand

Batista,

March

coup

closer,

shockingly

not

following

to

weekly

by

his

(whose

The

$250

coup

drew

investments

used

stage

the

a

parties,

break

later,

army

coup.

for

the

reasons:

1

Batista

2

Batista

3

The

claimed

(falsely)

promised

to

that

hold

Prio

fair

had

and

been

free

plotting

a

coup

elections

in

1954.

corruption

of

the

of

his

own.

BRAC

(by

Cuban

public

extension)

all

was

weary

of

the

Auténticos

and

The Cuban secret police, the Bureau for

the Repression of Communist Activities

politicians.

(the BRAC), focused on preventing 4

Batista

enjoyed

the

support

of

the

military,

the

police,

and

the

secret

communist inuences in Cuba. police

Batista

and

of

was

the

helped

also

USSR

power.

their

BRAC).

helped

because

guarantee

counter

came

(the

Some

the

from

that

by

his

These

different

frustration

at

US

however,

of

lack

the

of

Cold

War

rhetoric

government

Cubans

parts

the

emerging

pro-business

the

Cubans,

coup.

the

resistance

to

the

not

take

young,

political

of

would

wanted

(mostly

between

by

the

1930s

direct

but

were

political

his

action

and

USA

and

thwart

white,

spectrum

the

1940s

seizure

to

middle

united

class)

in

parties.

Castro’s early life

Fidel Castro was the son of a Spanish immigrant who had

His father ’s wealth and connections helped the young Fidel

worked his way up from labouring to eventually becoming a

to access the prestigious, Jesuit-run Belén college in Havana.

wealthy planter himself. Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz was born

He was not an ideal student, preferring spor t to academia,

in August 1926 (although Coltman claims that he was born in

but Castro went on to study Law at the University of Havana

1927 and his father lied about his age to get him into school)

in 1945. At university, he quickly became involved in the

and he grew up among the children of the labourers on his

student activist movements that formed a major par t of

father ’s plantations. Castro would later claim that this exposure

university life.

to the plight of the poor families in and around his father ’s estate

played a formative role in shaping his later political views.

The emergence of Fidel Castro

A

consistent

an

ability

students)

to

through

somewhat

to

the

of

strongest

Castro

had

a

of

Castro

by

message

their

the

indicators

justice

the

of

of

of

Castro’s

his

to

was

dramatic

of

and

US

populist

reform

leader

politically

oratorical

action.

He

and

conscience

prior

links

for

a

young,

skills

had

and

been

justice,

with

charged

a

drawn

not

their

process.

social

its

and

social

actions

the

he

heroism

parliamentary

are

ed

of

that

(especially

ideology

government

(wisely)

is

audiences

combination

following

socio-economic

corruption

his

simplistic

Ortodoxos

strategy

The

impression

inspire

to

to

several

1953.

the

and

After

armed

months.

belief

in

denouncing

gangs

On

his

in

the

1949,

return

to

65

2

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

Cuba

in

offered

Castro

to

set

1950

rent

1950,

to

and

up

to

as

his

a

1952

Throughout

in

poor

this

particular.

social

for

candidate

by

a

means

been

elected

to

economic

[change]

changes.

the

As

only

US

remained

also

be

wealthy

rm

in

of

to

Old

family

Havana

Resende,

area

money

chose

cover

their

but

instead

Havana.

From

meagre

slum-dwellers,

that

the

was

later

have

would

was

detained

he

saw

to

in

seemingly

a

CIA

for

Ortodoxo

success

the

had

way

much-needed

convinced

revolutionary

Prío

route

congressional

intention,

prepare

“was

the

the

as

electoral

his

the

he

the

President

parliamentary

that

enact

using

of

of

involved

been

declared,

by

critic

nominated

However,

realized

government

vocal

more

and

years

later

a

government

about

grew

would

he

Rafael

workers,

Auténtico

stating

movement

wife’s

general”.

districts.

–

and

enough

misgivings

congress,

could

1954

in

His

prosperous

impoverished

elections

poor

end

a

“victimized

he

1952

an

an

the

his

studies.

in

Azpiazu

Castro

change,

two

to

revolutionary

By

clients

and

law

job

made

the

time,

the

in

barely

Despite

campaign

Jorge

practice

they

his

well-paid

corruption

enacting

as

a

defended

and

endemic

completed

friends,

legal

they

students

he

arrange

he

for

a

social

then

and

that

means”.

to

install

US-friendly

CIA dictatorships

throughout

Latin

America

and

the

Caribbean.

To

avoid

President Harry S. Truman created accusations

of

being

“too

socialist”

and

thereby

inviting

CIA

intervention

the American spy agency, the Central in

Cuba,

Batista

reversed

or

withheld

the

long-awaited

reforms

to

Intelligence Agency (CIA) in 1947. The working

conditions.

He

used

the

corrupt

judiciary

and

politicians

to

CIA had the role of intelligence service to maintain

his

grip

on

power

while

using

the

BRAC

to

brutally

crush

any

support the actions of the US military and opponents

(or

potential

opposition)

that

the

courts

could

not

dissuade

to counter the Soviet spy agency, the KGB. or

block.

The

more

Batista

relied

upon

violence

to

quell

opposition,

the

By 1953, the CIA’s remit had expanded to more

he

entrenched

himself

in

the

eyes

of

Cubans

as

just

another

link

in

include the role of inuencing governments. a

long

chain

While

the

of

Ortodoxo

disobedience,

action

who

and

used

but

he

they

target

and

to

a

legal

for

arrest

began

liberate

of

a

by

advocated

youth

around

rhetoric

glorious,

the

to

or

violent

Batista’s

armed

court

an

assassination

the

leaders

harked

corrupt

passive

movements

young

that

unequivocally

planning

his

and

challenge

foiled

himself

oppressors.

leadership

student

rallied

myths

was

declared

the

militant

nationalist

launched

imperialist

back

such

to

the

struggle

for

as

system.

the

of

BRAC,

revolution

that

Fidel

Castro

felt

direct

Castro,

Cuban

Castro

of

that

and

went

was

civil

more

seizure

state”

he

and

freedom.

Realizing

the

for

romantic

undemocratic

“enemy

by

resistance

argued

power,

he

had

therefore

into

now

a

hiding

essential

country.

Castro’s attack on the Moncada Barracks, 26 July 1953

In

1953

the

Fidel

Batista

from

the

near

turbulent

barracks,

of

their

rebels

to

equip

the

With

a

to

masses,

to

be

Raúl

movement,

de

Cuba,

province.

call

inspire

use

brother

approximately

rousing

then

was

his

youth

Oriente

actions

would

and

Santiago

issue

Bloodshed

66

regime.

Ortodoxo

Barracks

and

Castro

a

the

thus

to

the

The

the

capital

plan

spontaneous

spreading

if

at

160

the

an

uprising

rebels,

attacked

city

was

of

to

and

the

in

revolution

the

to

against

mostly

drawn

Moncada

impoverished

on

weapons

possible.

the

quickly

rely

uprising

military

all

young

Castro

people,

captured

avoided

planned

capture

the

the

boldness

province.

and

all

The

supplies

of

Cuba.

C H A P T E R

2 . 1 :

C A s T R o ’ s

R i s E

T o

P o w E R

19 5 9

L ta

Research and thinking skills

Before the attack on the Moncada Barracks, Castro made

’68 and ’92, here in Oriente we will give the rst cry

this speech:

of Liber ty or Death!”

“In a few hours you will be victorious or defeated,

Coltman, L . 2003. The Real Fidel Castro. New Haven.

but regardless of the outcome – listen well, friends –

Yale University Press.

this movement will triumph. If you win tomorrow, the Research the speeches of at least two political leaders.

aspirations of Mar tí will be fullled sooner. If we fail, Compare the ways in which they choose words and

our action will never theless set an example for the phrases to accentuate their main arguments. If possible,

Cuban people, and from the people will arise fresh watch video footage of them delivering the speeches.

young men willing to die for Cuba. They will pick up Compare the body language and gestures employed. Use

our banner and move for ward … The people will this to help you decide the extent to which major events

back us in Oriente and in the whole island. As in are shaped by the actions and personalities of leaders.

The

plan

failed

wounded.

during

Río

the

kill

death

ghting.

them.

after

Sarría,

time,

Cuba’s

cause,

the

▲

the

their

Cubans

for

lieutenant

thus

to

Castro

the

his

to

life

the

the

and

ruling

take

and

a

further

ofcer,

attackers

to

a

of

this

his

that

having

Castro

to

altering

had

no

the

the

his

ofcer

mainly

guerrillas

elite

were

Alberto

from

relevant

were

to

lieutenant,

supportive

all

of

of

town

course

since,

at

Batista,

Spanish

for

prison

of

Pedro

torturing

disenfranchised

sympathy

del

torture

tortured

men

is

27

wounded

attackers,

black

prevented

and

15

Colonel

remaining

were

Despite

policemen,

and

thanks

and

ethnicity

Castro

white

decided

of

Cubans

centuries.

saving

56

survived

The

and

killed

commanding

instructions

ruler.

soldiers

were

capture

Castro,

mixed-race

resembled

barracks,

to

these

non-white

dead

garrison’s

prisoners.

and

19

attackers

soldiers

capture.

ignored

and

non-white

The

his

with

six

According

black

rst

descent

told

their

who

executing

that

dismally,

contrast,

Chaviano,

and

or

In

the

Castro’s

instead

of

to

history.

July 1953: Castro (seated, right) being interrogated by Colonel Alber to del Río Chaviano

(seated, left) and accompanied by Lieutenant Pedro Sarría (standing, right), the ocer

who arrested Castro and prevented his men from tor turing or killing him. Also present

is Police Chief Jose Izquierdo Rodriguez (standing, left). Colonel Chaviano was later

promoted to general and given control of the campaign against Castro’s guerrillas in the

Sierra Maestra. Lieutenant Sarría was never promoted.

67

2

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

The

simplicity

and

“somewhat

extension,

attack

been

Castro’s

well

some

plan

has

over-ambitious”

Castro’s

could

for

of

entire

have

both

described

the

revolutionary

been

fortuitous

been

–

the

end

of

as

attack

escapade.

Castro’s

naive,

itself

The

“reckless”

and,

by

failure

revolution

if

of

it

the

had

not

events.

Castro’s trial and the Moncada Programme, October 1953

The

evidence

that

forced

brothers,

role

in

coup

Fidel

the

and

“When

speak

the

despotism,

their

of

are

more

just

sound

give

for

fear

L ta

(November 1923) with Castro’s attack on

me,

the

brothers.

Compare Hitler ’s Munich Putsch

ground.

the

vast

are

very

last

above

I

of

Condemn

moved

all

breath

all

know

fury

by

generation

in

of

by

It

does

of

life,

lives,

be

whom

for

a

and

who,

when

they

sufciently

matter.

…

but

tore

History

–

of

who

I

said:

they

are

speaking

promises

dignied

having

for

any

grind

and

and

suffered

signicant

are

ready

something

or

and

to

in

themselves.

do

the

will

we

them,

in

his

he

conservative

until

justice,

his

Batista’s

dictatorship,

more

long

believe

out

and

make

attain

in

which

when

better ,

to

deliver

in

any

all

of

to

moment

aspirations

and

that

the

people,

to

yearn

hard

speech

scandal

admitted

nature

platform

a

Castro

openly

comfortable

of

by

created

the

illegal

oppression,

generation;

tyrant

not

the

of

death

Castro

the

me”

masses,

believe

will

trial,

out

master

ancestral

their

prison

mean

the

to

(including

national

regime

who

after

despicable

me.

all;

they

a

understand

aspects

when

that

the

not

before

We

the

absolve

unredeemed

betrayed

who

will

any

rebels

rebels

pointing

Castro

do

welcome

the

mockery

and

we

During

by

gave

into

and

it

“History

mean

nation;

the

trial.

people,

captured

surviving

themselves

transformations

even

As

not

to

to

trial

who

prostrating

and

someone,

...

the

the

justied

The

of

deceived

injustice

Raúl)

famous

nation,

foreheads

struggle,

who

the

torturing

bring

and

regime.

we

to

and

–

of

soldiers

attack

manifesto

sectors

Research and thinking skills

of

Batista

not

fear

lives

absolve

of

it,

just

seventy

as

of

I

do

my

me.”

Similarities between Castro’s trial in 1953 and Hitler ’s in 1924

There were similarities between the way in which Adolf Hitler and Fidel Castro

used their respective trials to their advantage:

the Moncada Barracks (July 1953). Draw ●

Neither admitted regret for their attempts to seize power.

●

Both were relatively unknown, relatively minor political activists prior to their trials.

●

Both became household names (and gained international recognition) as a

a table with two columns (one for each)

and identify the similarities in terms of:

●

why this happened

●

what happened

●

why this was signicant in the

result of their trials.

●

Both used their eloquent public speaking skills to deliver their manifesto to a

wider audience.

shor t term ●

●

Both used their trials to publicly denounce their respective governments

why this was signicant in the as illegitimate.

long term. ●

Both gained many suppor ters as a result of their performance at their trials.

●

Both (for dierent reasons) were treated relatively leniently when sentenced.

●

Both commemorated the date of their failed attempts once they had power:

Repeat the process for the dierences

between the two events.

●

Castro named his revolutionary movement Movimiento 26 de Julio after

the date of his attack on the Moncada Barracks

●

The NSDAP marked the 15th anniversary of the Munich Putsch with

anti-Jewish riots (later known as Kristallnacht)

68

C H A P T E R

●

2 . 1 :

C A s T R o ’ s

R i s E

T o

P o w E R

19 5 9

Both claimed that history would judge them more fairly than the cour t:

●

Hitler claimed that “the goddess of the eternal cour t of History … nds

us not guilty.”

●

Castro used the phrase “History will absolve me.”

Another

to

crucial

outline

his

Moncada

an

end

the

to

the

many

Santiago

of

for

the

a

Programme .

working

him

effect

vision

new

de

His

corruption

classes.

In

short,

who

was

Cuba,

desire

that

supporters

Cuba

trial

new

that

in

for

plagued

his

gave

a

Cuban

go

on

to

open,

play

fairer

a

at

young

crucial

chance

role

as

the

society

struck

courage

Paìs,

a

the

known

politics

and

Frank

Castro

became

more

eloquence

(including

would

it

what

a

and

the

trial

teacher

in

The Moncada Programme

with

This was Castro’s programme for social

won

reform, comprising ve “Revolutionary

chord

from

Laws”:

Castro’s

1

future

success)

and

embarrassed

Batista

even

Return power to the people by

further.

reinstating the 1940 constitution

Many

of

his

co-defendants

at

the

trial

were

let

off

with

relatively

2

lenient

sentences.

Castro

and

his

brother

were

sentenced

to

15

Land reform: giving rights to those

and

living or squatting on small plots

13

years

respectively,

thus

removing

their

threat

to

the

regime.

However,

(less than 165 acres)

in

the

run-up

to

the

presidential

elections

promised

for

1954,

Batista

3 relaxed

the

censorship

laws

in

Cuba

and

allowed

rival

political

Prot sharing for industrial workers

parties

(30 per cent of the company’s prots) to

campaign.

for

his

more

This

freedom.

lenient,

brothers)

an

meant

With

Batista

that

both

internal

granted

amnesty

in

Castro’s

all

May

supporters

and

could

international

political

prisoners

also

campaign

pressure

(including

to

appear

the

4

per cent of the company’s prots)

Castro

1955.

Prot sharing for sugar workers (55

5

End corruption: those found guilty

of fraud to have their proper ty As

the

only

candidate,

Batista

had

“won”

the

1954

elections

but

this

did

conscated – this would then be used not

signal

the

end

of

his

problems.

His

secret

police

force

was

kept

busy

to pay for workers’ pensions, schools, dealing

with

the

increasing

numbers

of

opposition

groups

plotting

against

hospitals and charities his

regime.

comparison

as

Castro’s

and,

insignicant

Movimiento

not

was

for

the

the

rst

group

de

or

that

26

Julio

last

time

would

seemed

in

a

minor

history,

eventually

the

concern

regime

destroy

in

dismissed

them.

Movimiento de 26 Julio

By

to

A

1955

the

Batista’s

increasing

regime

was

number

cycle

of

violence

leading

to

even

of

ensued,

more

growing

protests

with

more

was

more

government

unpopular

growing

protests

and

more

and

a

his

responses

on the Moncada Barracks as the name of

repressive.

series

of

Castro used the date of the failed attack

bombings,

his revolutionary group: Movimiento 26

de Julio, or M-26-7.

repression.

Castro’s exile in Mexico and return to Cuba, 1955–1956

Following

to

Raùl

to

his

re-enter

had

repent

re-arrest

Castro’s

achieve

release

the

ed

for

or

from

political

to

Mexico.

their

that

Their

Cuba

meaningful

by

May

within

growing

actions

BRAC

(and

change

in

but,

revolutionary

assassination

belief

prison

arena

1955,

six

popularity

made

agents.

Latin

in

Castro

he

and

them

This

America

through

Fidel

weeks,

and

to

general)

parliamentary

brother

unwillingness

likely

served

attempted

his

targets

for

strengthen

could

not

methods.

Source skills

Quote

“I

from

believe

the

US

that

countries

humiliation

country’s

President

there

under

and

policies

is

no

Kennedy

country

colonial

the

the

24

October

1963:

world,

including

any

domination,

exploitation

during

in

from

were

worse

Batista

where

than

regime.

I

economic

in

Cuba,

approved

and

all

colonization,

in

the

part

owing

to

proclamation

my

that

69

2

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

Fidel

and

Castro

especially

extent

part

of

made

it

of

the

is

as

the

in

the

yearned

though

United

Batista

Sierra

to

rid

Batista

States.

regime,

I

Cuba

was

Now

am

Maestra,

in

of

the

we

when

he

corruption.

I

incarnation

shall

have

agreement

to

with

justiably

will

of

a

pay

the

even

called

go

number

for

rst

those

justice

further:

of

sins

sins.

Cuban

for

In

to

on

some

the

the

matter

revolutionaries.”

Question

To

what

Usethe

In

Mexico

their

cells

in

extent

rest

in

return

to

help

the

Cuban

his

of

Castro

and

time

was

more

claims

played

the

of

ministers

Communist

Although

designed

been

USSR

for

in

early

Cuba

and

the

Castro

movement

work

Frank

of

support

in

force

had

the

that

election

were

young

young

to

than

Castro

the

party.

in

In

victory

“half

a

Guevara

atly

article

leading

country

cause.

imperialism.

ideals

an

that

a

committed

1956,

group

posters,

the

Castro’s

idealistic

were

to

and

82

to

refuted

which

he

particular,

was

due

dozen

of

members

of

to

his

the

to

obviously

the

supporters,

and

with

he

level

the

a

of

PSP

this

was

Castro

wary

control

at

was

Batista

political

this

not

had

of

move

had

often

aligning

exercised

time

were

what

made

by

the

calling

Castro

the

PSP

of

the

workers.

support

away

from

increase

gained

great

other

their

since

his

ideas

efforts

the

to

M-26-7

the

members

way

Barracks

Especially

and

his

M-26-7

pave

Moncada

recruitment

supplies

and

Ortodoxos .

popularity.

cells,

medical

for

the

due

increased,

military

to

as

for

attack,

the

did

the

equipment

with

rebels.

Castro

funds

Castro

Fidel

due

province,

the

was

particular,

Batista

volunteers

With

In

enough

break

had

and

the

PSP

conservative

Cuban

gathering

Prío),

promised,

to

began

Mexico,

of

Cuba.

ex-President

had

1940

PSP)

Furthermore,

Oriente

Paìs

work

Meanwhile,

liberate

In

of

collaboration

ofcially

Castro’s

ghting

(the

an

writing

links

collaborators

them

among

immediately

to

Batista’s

more

opposition

earlier

1956

to

his

with

return.

which

close

actions.

Castro’s

of

that

communists.

closely

their

unpopular

essential

70

of

Their

movement

fact

former

of

corporate

In

and

Cienfuegos,

communist

communist,

dictator’s

condemnation

non-violent

1950s

a

or

such

weapons

throughout

support

for

underground

one

newsletters

Castro,

nationalism.

preparation

secret

stockpiling

Camilo

like

in

established

Guevara,

American

Marxist

communists

reassure

too

over

wanted.

By

his

to

was

Paìs

began

in

above?

Party”.

critical

himself

the

the

to

group

formed

Programme

met

“Che”

of

Cuba

uprisings

them,

Cuban

he

Cuban

upon

support

present

that

in

M-26-7

Frank

Kennedy

answer.

anti-regime

Castro

America

from

your

in

Moncada

popular

committed

in

groups

printing

of

quote

the

return.

Ernesto

Both

Latin

you

members

the

for

and

doctor.

less

as

of

the

help

secret

Mexico,

interested

denounced

the

These

well

with

organized

Castro’s

way

in

ridding

Batista’s

he

as

to

M-26-7

promises

nationalist,

Argentinian

cause

Castro

Cuba.

the

agree

section

support

de

preparing

During

you

Cuba.

ammunition

spreading

and

do

this

1955,

to

Santiago

and

of

had

from

had

Castro

secretly

who

a

would

variety

purchased

would

return

recruited,

sail

of

armed,

him

anti-Batista

an

to

with

old

yacht

Cuba

on

and

his

sources

(the

before

trained

mission

(including

Granma).

the

a

to

end

of

As

he

1956.

C H A P T E R

2 . 1 :

C A s T R o ’ s

R i s E

T o

P o w E R

19 5 9

The Granma expedition and Santiago uprising, November 1956

Castro’s

invasion

Tuxpan

town

in

of

The

in

PSP

this

in

it

publicly

and

he

go

showed

Due

lack

to

their

ill

The

(designed

a

for

storm

a

plan

also

had

Paìs’s

support,

they

One

least

is

67

joined

ee

to

not

of

the

lives.

hand

how

and

the

by

felt

over

to

the

from

do

the

a

and

Granma

as

boat

ran

they

and

their

supplies.

of

As

a

and

poor

days

of

had

ghting,

grown

in

back

citizens

of

at

many

who

uniforms

since

Santiago

while

rebels

early.

Castro’s

planes.

Barracks,

merged

the

too

without

policemen

drab

and

Granma

sporadic

weapons,

Those

olive

Cuba

two

number

Some

their

or

rebels

terrible

fuel

and

Moncada

trusting

police

de

the

revolution

weapons

the

but,

hours

army.

their

once

police

30

rebels.

and

overcrowded

precious

launched

the

them

this,

BRAC,

on

the

in

and

journey

and

Castro’s

the

their

to

After

relations

problems

Santiago

and

army

attack

removed

hid

safe

in

was

had

1957

planned.

delayed

army

win.

jettison

Barracks

attack

gave

hide

armbands,

them

ght

willingly

rebels

the

for

second

to

uprising

the

to

to

than

took

hazardous

immediately,

time

they

promise.

the

mechanical

not

Castro

yacht

was

that

cane

adamant

secrecy,

in

the

before

public

this

arguing

Furthermore,

longer

ageing

precious

to

forced

Batista’s

support

countryside

They

this

hope

this

refused

rebels

black-and-red

normal

not

during

helped

that

losing

Moncada

engaged

pursued

soldiers

the

citizens

not

how,

the

of

crossing

Almost

Due

its

José

clear

were

was

Cuba

on

conditions

longer

popular

the

maintain

leaky,

cells

discovered.

renege

to

a

and

were

days

However,

meant

could

indication

1953

a

landed.

withdrew,

was

82).

that

after

activity.

Castro

liberate

(1235-mile)

not

they

on

cells

need

weather

two

for

attack

rebel

they

the

to

of

where

became

until

strike

being

to

of

expedition,

it

M-26-7

importance

not

overboard.

took

arguing

the

foundered,

fell

called

communications

Frank

of

wait

However,

return

Granma

bad

reserves,

simultaneous

expedition

and

the

nearly

fuel

a

to

who

crossing

The

would

funds

and

result,

the

he

from

the

because

west

the

When

to

Oriente

of

partly

miles)

launching

him

chances

carried

near

1895.

planned

the

planned,

(180

in

secretly

province,

chosen

Batista.

get

with

awareness

of

dwindling

to

that

their

passengers,

and

man

tried

to

expedition.

as

was

from

determination

due

25

point

Castro

were

Oriente

kilometres

1988-kilometre

uncomfortable

rescued

his

equipped

condition.

into

that

his

by

the

of

expedition

coincide

greater

declared

tip

opposition

ahead

the

his

Castro

support

it,

288

they

to

informed

revolutionaries

landing

was

work,

propaganda

were

The

dissuade

January

would

82

western

during

to

not

to

launch

it

of

the

non-violent

Paìs

ready

that

to

failed

would

Frank

–

landed

for

harvest

yet

nature

had

vain

to

Manzanillo.

symbolic

Martí

force

Mexico

did

and

into

their

Oriente

to

army.

Journey to the Sierra Maestra, November 1956

T wo

days

defeated,

landing

to

carry

their

the

heavy

uprising,

eventually

forcing

Batista’s

and

Santiago

Granma

point,

mudats.

planes

after

the

the

sick,

warships,

force

with

ashore

soon

the

M-26-7

ran

and

them

that

the

forces

aground

hungry

through

spotted

threat

the

It

exhausted

equipment

air

with

arrived.

the

and

army

off

dispersed

the

and

designated

revolutionaries

shallows

they

and

were

would

the

attacked

soon

arrive,

by

too.

71

C H A P T E R

The

army

strategy

rebels

compounded

intended

with

of

targets

mobility

patrols

the

to

It

the

soldier)

(after

a

forbidden

would

be

brief

trial)

saw

than

this

the

were

and,

guilty

corrupt

under

if

but

the

the

and

leader

legal

of

made

them

army

back

into

played

support

avoid

for

his

the

brutality

murder

an

he

of

enemy’s

(Fidelista,

peasants

or

to

or

permitted,

person

brand

the

advantages

attacked

peasants’

torture

the

19 5 9

army.

instructions

any

unit

effective

police

if

against

P o w E R

importance

disappearing

the

The

situation

crimes

by

strict

soldiers.

often

T o

artillery)

interrrogation

demoralized

However,

of

executed

harsh

further

of

and

This

the

R i s E

reactive

main

aircraft

rebels

before

a

engage

their

learning

methods

still

enemy

treated.

found

brutal

on

not

garrisons.

The

C A s T R o ’ s

adopting

did

tanks,

rapidly

attacks.

increasingly

captured

relied

defended

ammunition

increasing

an

but

by

They

including

were

their

and

forces.

tactics

heavily

army’s

by

to

was

peasants

fairer

The

advantages

Castro’s

who

in

Fidelistas

or

was

their

rebels

surprise

led

civilians

wounds

rebels’

equipment,

weapons

hands

also

prisoners

the

forests.

contrast,

with

▲

and

Castro’s

rebels.

within

for

grab

dense

into

In

military

remained

static

the

contain

counter-insurgency

(US-supplied

and

to

2 . 1 :

civilian

would

injured

revolutionary

or

be

party.

justice

Most

as

far

system.

Che Guevara (left) relaxing with friend and fellow Fidelista Camilo Cienfuegos during the

last days of the Sierra Maestra campaign, c. 1958

The rural campaign

Castro

had

failure

of

later

meant

strategy

and

not

the

(to

that

success:

This

his

an

into

shows

to

wage

uprising

had

activity)

developed

Maestra.

he

inspire

guerrilla

soon

intended

Santiago

to

the

and

adjust

his

urban-based

in

favour

full-scale

one

movement’s

of

of

war

his

from

own

plans.

He

campaign

a

rural

the

factors

and

rural

that

his

base,

of

sabotage,

with

led

to

but

landing

abandoned

guerrilla

engagements

exibility

a

disastrous

the

army

Castro’s

willingness

to

days

initial

insurrection,

campaign,

the

the

two

in

which

the

Sierra

eventual

adapt

to

the

73

2

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

situation.

resilient

to

use

and

the

This

cadre

force

police.

The

helped

and

to

have

regime

array

in

been

Other

ex-president

sailors

to

the

wide

secure

opponent

not

activists.

against

Ortodoxo

ofcers

would

of

of

but

his

Prío

Castro’s

and

●

Comparison of Castro’s Sierra campaign and

who

with

to

–

–

public

a

motivated

had

overcome

supporters

the

had

less

students

September

in

a

organizations

failed

his

in

position

regime

had

opponents

Cienfuegos

Batista’s

possible

anti-Batista

in

all

in

the

May

of

1957;

1957;

This

consciousness

chance

tried

army

March

failed.

or

also

some

only

as

the

only

success.

Both sides struggled to gain recruits at rst; their

seemingly impossible plight discouraged any but the

Mao’s Long March most dedicated from joining them. There were similarities between Castro’s Sierra campaign

●

Both initially began an urban campaign that then had to

of 1956 and Mao Zedong’s Long March of 1934–1936:

move to the countryside. ●

Both were outnumbered by enemy forces.

●

Both operations began badly, were heavily outgunned

●

Both ordered their troops to treat the peasants with

kindness, help them, educate them and not abuse them. by their enemies and were nearly wiped out.

●

●

Both were facing an enemy who treated the peasants

Both lost much of their force to deser tion as the with disdain and brutality, thus helping the rebels situation looked increasingly bleak . even fur ther.

●

Both faced diculties in resupply.

●

Both were leading forces of ideologically driven and

among the peasants and recruiting them, leading to

committed troops against an enemy whose army

their future success.

●

Both were successful at planting “revolutionary seeds”

mostly comprised conscripts and unmotivated soldiers.

The role of the urban revolutionary movements

Often

overlooked

invaluable

the

role

M-26-7

in

of

descriptions

the

urban

movement

campaign

of

sabotage

campaign

in

the

professionals

and

the

own

propaganda.

in

According

to

committed

in

the

one

that

city,

Castro

–

not

boycott

of

in

cities

They

states,

over

immediate

Twelve

the

Batista’s

000

acts

26

in

Castro’s

with

the

the

as

a

cells

of

determined

guerrilla

middle-class

grafti

government’s

Sierra

elections.

the

could

not

be

were

were

Franqui,

were

the

the

the

revolutionary

the

revolution,

was

USSR,

heart

and

soul

claimed:

strikes,

revolution

a

with

propaganda

Movement,

The

sabotage

alignment

followers

Followers

July

of

Carlos

Castro’s

peasants,

his

war,

war

upon

anti-regime

counter

the

war.”

30

at

embarked

strikes,

to

is

underground

support

campaign.

protest

the

to

Revolution

The

coordinated

“the

peasant

his

and

clandestine

people’s

a

Cuban

organized

two-year

and

Comandante

the

as

Cuba

the

information

Balfour

the

the

propaganda

calculation,

ed

revolution

“The

As

of

sense

during

1960

declared

of

any

in

Maestra.

Ortodoxos,

dissemination

described

who

and

hiding

and

Sierra

of

revolutionaries.

the

the

not

the

sabotage,

hero

not

the

the

people.”

While

this

former

really

about

imposing

the

the

their

M-26-7

Cuba’s

74

verdict

comrade,

can

it

people

view

rebels

populace

be

put

cannot

of

upon

the

or

the

bitterness

ignored.

about

nation?

would

the

to

entirely

Cuba,

enjoyed

shared

down

be

Castro

The

suggest

revolutionary

Was

level

that

a

aims.

of

the

and

of

a

disillusioned

Cuban

his

followers

popular

good

revolution

support

proportion

of

that

C H A P T E R

Frank

in

Paìs’s

Oriente

sparked

a

strike

Camagüey

rights,

resistance

province

and

thus

outposts

area

by

and

strike

was

still

mostly

support,

quell

strike

as

as

a

he

support

it

he

the

for

the

rural

of

9

of

for

the

police

Santiago

by

those

in

to

M-26-7

July

the

who

R i s E

T o

P o w E R

19 5 9

organization

1957

in

provinces

suspending

Santiago

of

constitutional

labelled

around

Oriente

province.

had

liberated

his

him

an

little

the

felt

to

it

almost

all

in

he

still

of

enough

sectors

of

from

in

the

the

enjoy

Cuban

the

PSP

popular

methods

the

to

The

eastern

where

and

brutal

time,

nationwide

west,

must

failure

this

government

movement.

unions

employ

not

a

support

the

labour

the

was

for

M-26-7

strong

that

force

entirely

called

success

during

demoralized

forces

the

described

did

by

strength

rebels

with

However,

from

in

received

Batista

himself

and,

the

Since

police

campaigns

the

and

demoralized

campaign

centred

it

his

setback”.

urban

withdraw

lived.

Batista,

losing

gained

increasingly

solidarity

force

Castro

the

1958,

April

However,

his

to

March

show

was

reinvigorate

Overall,

hub

the

reacted

Maestra

against

authorized

major

did

the

by

from

hands

Batista

In

labour

protests.

“a

Batista

Sierra

supported

the

as

1958.

the

so

the

the

Cuba.

of

spread

the

attacks

organized

central

majority

into

forcing

spring

general

strike

in

more

and

soon

been

murder

C A s T R o ’ s

dictator.

forces

launching

had

his

Villas.

playing

undemocratic

Castro’s

that

Las

cells

and

2 . 1 :

to

general

regain

Batista

society;

nor

army.

not

1958,

areas

enjoy

the

of

the

same

resistance

the

Sierra

to

degree

Batista

Maestra

of

success

was

mountains

and

Castro’s use of propaganda

Castro was clearly aware of the power of political speeches

Growing international awareness of the brutality of

and propaganda, which he had used to good eect in his

Batista’s regime, contrasted with the seemingly noble

student days. One aim of his Moncada plan had been

and charismatic Fidelistas, helped convince the US

to capture the radio at the base and use it to broadcast

government to withdraw their military suppor t for the

revolutionary messages to inspire the hoped-for uprising.

regime. With Castro’s broadcasts constantly adver tising

Similarly, in 1957, one of the rebels’ rst acts was to

his plans for rejuvenating the Cuban economy, business

establish Radio Rebelde (Rebel Radio) to broadcast their

leaders began to give their suppor t to the rebels.

propaganda and to counteract the government propaganda. Castro’s propaganda also helped to convince Batista

As Batista’s forces failed to crush the guerrilla movement,

that , by 1958, the guerrilla army in the Sierra Maestra

the radio broadcasts exaggerated its victories and

numbered between 1000 and 2000 experienced

continued to inform the Cuban public about the Moncada

ghters. In reality, Castro had little more than 300

Programme and other M-26-7 promises. They also served

ghters until just before his nal victory in 1959.

to counter the government claims that Castro was dead.

Batista’s counter-attack: Operation Verano

In

June

1958,

convinced

that

the

tide

was

turning

in

his

favour,

Batista

Class discussion launched

troops,

Operation

backed

overwhelming

forces

1

were

More

air

superiority

half

and

(Operation

support,

handicapped

than

training

by

Verano

in

by

tanks,

less

and

numbers

a

number

(approximately

even

Summer)

incentive

7000)

to

artillery.

and

of

with

12

000

Despite

equipment,

government

Discuss the role played by propaganda

their

the

government

in securing Castro’s rise to power.

weaknesses:

were

conscripts

with

little

ght.

75

2

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

2

The

operational

General

Eulogio

General

Alberto

colonel,

had

Moncada

3

Castro’s

the

4

By

forces

men,

movements

L ta

The

rst

2

major

Rio

in

for

(the

the

but

two

rival

politically

same

ofcer

torture

and

generals:

connected,

who,

as

execution

a

of

the

1953).

the

local

ground

well

mineelds

population

providing

while

between

inept,

Chaviano

planting

the

divided

the

responsible

knew

by

was

and

them

doing

the

engagements

was

with

exact

were

a

and

and

were

able

planning

rmly

excellent

opposite

disaster

to

prepare

supportive

of

intelligence

for

for

the

the

for

ambushes.

Castro

about

troop

government

army,

forces.

which

Thinking and communication skills suffered

1

del

attackers

mid-1958

his

Cantillo

been

offensive

and

command

heavy

List the main reasons for the failure

mercifully,

of Batista’s counter-attack (Operation

This

Verano).

surrender

Explain the signicance of the failure of

The

Operation Verano in terms of the nal

Mercedes

outcome of the Cuban Revolution.

in

casualties.

sometimes

encouraged

one

the

rather

(29

than

70

July

run.

men.

to

Castro

negotiate

discuss

the

an

rebel

end

rebels

to

forces

eventually

left

off

“victory”

8

the

of

August),

them

troops

treated

the

to

was

army

ceasere

war.

their

choice

seek

still

a

out

in

Verano ,

victory

to

enemies

join

an

the

rebels.

opportunity

avoided

and

During

suggest

the

away

army

six

so

the

for

trapping

because

reinforcements.

slipped

Cuban

Operation

was

succeeded

disaster

quietly

failed,

to

the

often

to

ght.

1500

a

men

allowing

ambush

Total

managed

to

cut

to

An

even

disheartened

government

long

killing

the

Castro’s

days

that

resumed

two

he

of

bought

the

when

their

rebel

was

of

rebel

Las

forces

columns,

Guevara’s

This

that

Battle

the

column

time

willing

for

to

negotiations,

the

negotiations

assault

but

found

no

ght.

Castro’s victory

Following

Operation

forces

the

the

were

end

failure

Verano,

aware

was

nigh.

immediately

the

now

Cuba,

by

their

deserters.

By

supporters

him

by

plane

had ▲

swollen

army

a

1958

remarkable

the

of

original

the

Granma

Castro’s

abroad

and

but

most

own

helped

in

new

ammunition

weapons

Batista’s

forces

central

smuggling

weapons

rebel

His

numbered

–

survivors

a

capitalize

December

from

expedition.

by

and

3000

growth

18

into

Fidelistas

nearly

Castro

numbers

peasants

the

to

situation.

moved

that

launched

counter-attack

on

of

Batista’s

of

came

forces,

surrendered

the

from

which

them

or

Fidel Castro and his Fidelistas celebrate their victory in 1959.

them

76

behind

as

they

ed.

left

C H A P T E R

After

bitter

defeat

ed

of

from

triumph

ghting

the

army

Cuba

on

2

to

in

the

cities

garrison

the

at

of

Dominican

January

Santiago

Yaguajay

on

and

30

Republic.

2 . 1 :

Santa

C A s T R o ’ s

Clara

December

Castro

and

1958,

entered

R i s E

T o

P o w E R

19 5 9

the

Batista

Havana

in

1959.

they controlled a wide area of the mountains. Thus the

Herber t L Matthews’ inter view with Castro,

myth of Castro’s invincibility was disseminated to a wider,

February 1957 previously sceptical audience. It was not long until more One of the ways in which Castro used the media was by international journalists came to see for themselves. allowing New York Times journalist Herber t L Matthews

Before Matthews’ interview, the Cuban press had written into the Sierra Maestra for a candid interview. Embedded

mostly about the resor t atmosphere of Havana, and the with the rebels, Matthews wrote about the potency and

government did a fairly good job of controlling the stories popularity of the guerrilla band and their enigmatic leader.

that left the island. After Matthew’s interview, Reader ’s Through careful stage-managing of his rag-tag band of

Guide ar ticles focused on rebel demands and interviews rebels, Castro managed to give Matthews (and, thereby,

with Castro, which kept the revolution on the front pages the American and Cuban public) the impression that his

of the US press. force was not only much larger than it was but also that

Why did the Batista regime collapse?

According

was

to

Balfour,

“because

it

was

failure

to

on

communist-led

the

retain

movement’s

classes,

the

the

damaged

already

the

violence

Batista’s

been

of

trade

of

any

reducing

the

support

weakened

social

in

and

the

the

elites

central

caused

business

corruption

elite

of

that

his

to

he

the

their

(support

regime).

relied

The

Cuba.

by

collapse

Batista’s

labour.

appealed

and

crisis

regime’s

meant

organized

eastern

the

Batista

Additionally,

corruption

economic

from

by

for

barbarous”.

unions

peasants

and

reason

and

support

promises

especially

escalating

main

corrupt

M-26-7

working

The

revolution

that

His

had

failure

Class discussion

to

Draw and complete a summary table counter

Castro’s

propaganda,

torture,

led

support

for

Batista

while

support

for

Castro.

Even

combined

with

his

police

force’s

use

of

with the following headings to show to

public

pressure

on

the

US

government

to

withdraw

their

how Castro’s ideological stance changed simultaneously

encouraging

more

international

over time:

US

corporations

and

and

the

Batista’s

Maa

connections

could

not

hide

to

the

his

politically

regime’s

powerful

corruption

●

date

●

evidence of communist/Marxist views

●

evidence of nationalist views

●

source.

brutality.

Batista

believed

enjoyed

during

illegitimacy

inequity

Relaxing

of

and

his

his

he

could

1952

coup

openly

the

popularity

presidential

and

his

prior

term.

failure

strengthened

restrictions

could

recreate

1940–1944

corruption

press

opponents

that

the

to

that

However,

address

arguments

to

the

1954

challenge

the

legitimacy

he

elections

of

the

of

the

issues

his

of

social

opponents.

meant

his

had

that

his

regime.

Class discussion

In

response

to

growing

international

awareness

of

Batista’s

brutal

Create a simple storyboard for Castro’s rise regime

through

pro-Castro

articles

(such

as

the

Herbert

L.

Matthews

to power, to establish the narrative clearly interviews

in

the

New

York

Times )

the

US

government

nally

banned

in your mind. Colour-code each frame to arms

sales

to

both

sides

in

Cuba.

Although

the

ban

had

little

material

weaponry

and

ammunition

show which factor(s) played a signicant impact

(Batista

had

stockpiles

of

US

and

role at each stage. Then choose one of the

rebels

continued

to

be

supplied

by

arms

smugglers),

it

had

the

these factors at random and discuss how symbolic

effect

of

showing

that

the

US

no

longer

fully

supported

the

this was signicant in Castro’s rise to power. Cuban

leader.

77

2

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

The

Cuban

business

economic

slavish

and

plantation

interests

policies

they

more

than

could

in

be

the

curry

rebel

The

occasion)

argued

potential

favour

who

fact

he

their

that

for

with

further

the

Castro

was

a

seemed

end

whose

by

recent

losses.

young,

an

had

not

bankers

affected

policy

promised

that

and

negatively

economic

that

secure

industrialists

been

pro-US

to

Cuba.

helped

also

a

saw

successful

one

nationalist,

It

to

attempted

imperialism

already

now

adherence

increasingly

owners,

had

no

US

Batista’s

longer

charismatic,

to

openly

US

and

corporate

declared

communist

viable

but

a

(on

Cuban

support.

Batista

was

defeated

by

the

ghost

of

José

Class discussion Martí,

symbolically

Look back at the Castro section so far. To

historians

what extent is it accurate to claim that the

the

failure at Moncada in 1953 was the main

Castro’s

reason for Castro’s success in 1959?

social

cut

the

19th-century

a

due

success

dashing

to

This

the

Havana

cheering

Cuban

of

a

a

who

nationalist

Fidel

his

1959,

Carlyle

public

to

Castro

him

Castro.

the

as

As

the

and

keeping

of

the

Herbert

qualities

as

imagination

revolutionary

he

was

In

compound

masterly

Batista.

hailed

(a

personal

the

heir

to

of

his

In

tting

policies

January

crowds

of

time.

due

in

Theory

Thomas

result

the

partly

failed

Man

historians

gure;

was

in

reincarnated

Great

was

conditions

Martí.

to

call

use

of

rode

in

greeted

latest

the

Fidel

as

the

Castro

tradition

media

along

the

what

of

Spencer),

well

triumph

all

and

with

views

and

from

his

last

in

of

José

partly

Santiago

route

the

by

line

of

heroes.

L ta

Self-management and communication skills

Create a series of revision cards to explain Castro’s rise to power. Set yourself a

question, for example, “ To what extent was the use of force the main reason for

Castro coming to power in Cuba?”

a

Make each card about 7.5cm by 12.5cm.

b

Use dierent-coloured cards for each main factor.

c

On one side write the date (month and year) and a brief comment about the event,

for example, “November 1958: Granma expedition launched”.

Class discussion

d

On the other side write bullet points about the event, selecting information carefully

To what extent can the Great Man theory

for relevance to the question. be applied to Castro’s rise to power in

Cuba? Create a balanced response to this

Working with a par tner, shue the cards and deal out six random cards each.

question by identifying the arguments for

Construct an essay plan using just those six. Verbally explain your essay plan to

both sides.

your par tner.

78

C H A P T E R

2 . 1 :

C A s T R o ’ s

R i s E

T o

P o w E R

19 5 9

Political par ties in Cuba

Par tido Revolucionario Cubano Auténtico (the Authentic

Par tido Or todoxo (the Or thodox Par ty)

Cuban Revolutionary Par ty; aka the Auténticos) Socialist, nationalist, anti-imperialist/anti-US, populist

Conservative/nationalist par ty set up by Dr Ramón Grau

par ty; founded in 1947 by Chibás in response to

San Mar tín during his exile in the USA (1934–1940);

corruption, demands for social justice and lack of reforms

primarily middle class suppor t base; opposed Batista’s

of the Batista and Grau governments; adopted a strongly

government; once in power (1944–1948) used armed

anti-communist outlook c. 1947–1948; Fidel Castro was

political gangs to deal with opposition and had close ties

a prominent member from 1947; looked likely to win the

to American Maa organizations.

1952 election before Batista’s coup.

Partido Socialista Popular (the Popular Socialist Party; PSP)

Par tido Liberal de Cuba (the Liberal Par ty of Cuba)

Formed in 1925 as the Par tido Comunista de Cuba (the

Centre-right par ty founded in 1910; dissolved in 1959;

Cuban Communist Par ty); renamed in 1944. Suppor ted

allied with various par ties against the Auténticos in the

Batista in the 1930s against his wealthy middle-class

1954 election with Batista as their presidential candidate;

opponents in Grau’s Auténticos. In 1944 the PSP lost

the Liberals came second.

the election that brought Grau back to the presidency.

Dissolved in 1961 before being resurrected (in 1965)

as the Par tido Comunista de Cuba once more.

Similarities and dierences in the rise to power of Adolf Hitler (Germany), Fidel Castro (Cuba)

and Hugo Chavez (Venezuela)

Key event

Hitler

Castro

Failed attempt

Munich Putsch, November

Attack on the Moncada

Failed coup attempt –

to seize power

1923

Barracks, July 1953

Operation Zamora, February

by force

Chávez

1992

The speech he gave at his

The speech he gave at his

His televised call for his

Failed coup

trial (“ The Goddess of History

trial (“History will absolve

soldiers to surrender/cease

led to public

acquits me”) and the book

me”) and its subsequent

ghting after the coup failed

popularity

(Mein Kampf) he wrote while

publication as the Moncada

and his subsequent trial

in prison

Programme

From November 1923 to

From October 1953 to May

From February 1992 to early

December 1924; released

1955; released during a

1994; released from prison

after ser ving nine months

government amnesty as

after the impeachment of the

of a lenient ve-year

Batista attempted to appear

president that he had tried

prison term

less dictatorial in the wake of

to oust

Time in prison

the widely condemned 1954

elections

Changed tactics and achieved

Fought a guerrilla war from

Following his release from

power through the democratic

November 1956 to December

prison, he used his popularity

Method of

process; President Paul

1958; achieved power

from the coup to begin a

gaining political

von Hindenburg used his

through military victory;

political career; won the

power

emergency powers to make

became de facto leader of

presidential elections in

Hitler Chancellor of Germany

Cuba in January 1959

December 1998

in January 1933

79

2.2

Castro’s consolidation and

maintenance of power, 1959–19 62

Conceptual understanding

Key questions

➔

How was Fidel Castro able to secure his control over Cuba after January 1959?

➔

What diculties did he face?

➔

How did he overcome these diculties?

➔

What new problems occurred as a result of these solutions?

Key concepts

➔

Change

➔

Continuity

Establishing the “new Cuba”

▲

Victorious Castro and his suppor ters enter Havana, January 1959 – It has been

repeatedly stated that Castro’s victorious rebels did not engage in any of the looting or

violence that customarily accompanied a military victory like this.

After

Batista

ofcers

to

supporters

primary

had

took

aim

had

would

in

been

need

parliamentary

80

Cuba

a

it

his

1958

The

now

born

very

in

(and

US-supported

power.

and

promised

state

it

ed

establish

Cuban

had

to

Moncada

out

of

quickly

democracy.

brief

attempt

Fidel

Revolution

create

the

Programme

violent

to

a

junta),

back

political

achieve

the

had

“new

by

some

Castro

that

1954.

revolution

legitimacy

of

a

its

Castro

The

but

army

his

achieved

Cuba”

in

and

to

new

survive

C H A P T E R

2 . 2 :

Castro

knew

secure

the

arranged

showed

prots

US

tend

to

much

governed

he

nationalism

his

Catholic

declaring

“They

the

against

the

as

initially,

began

of

to

John

intends

This

a

fast

fact

go

of

to

order

the

US

to

forced

and

in

that

behest

reform

P o w E R ,

Dulles,

19 5 9 – 19 6 2

to

CIA

had

corporations

protect

Castro

the

to

move

nationalization.

communist

Foster

free

to

Castro

doctrines

from

pursue

was

and

in

He

January

informed

communist

friendly

not

whose

of

than

Marx

or

President

taint

relations

just

the

with

wealthy

for

likening

communist

a

as

and

with

strong

elites.

policies

the

this

so

the

needs

focus

to

he

even

Christ’s

on

benet

When

Castro

to

at

not

by

designed

example,

his

were

Lenin

improvements

reforms,

by

a

policies

independence,

economic

teachings]

the

most

seen

Castro

the

the

would

not

appears

that

agrarian

humble

Catholic

as

work

rather

not

the

a

into

not

prosper

of

the

was

drew

teachings,

M

Nixon

start

a

support

did.

His

landholdings

planters.

stated,

communist

making

of

and

of

vital

society,

but

germinated

this

and

after

US

trade

the

wealthy

against

in

and

trade

deal

even

Castro

the

US

embargo

with

when

businesses

meeting

he

were,

changed

other

the

classes

organized

reforms

soon

Nevertheless,

that

the

for

move

economic

although

Cuban

The

high

immediately

rulers

large

in

Palestine.”

history

not

moderate,

wealthy

together.

Castro

did

communist

Richard

was

did

people

Church’s

Castro

and

Vice-President

pushed

was

pragmatist

rather

nationalizing

should

a

rhetoric

poor,

corporations

that

it

Cuban

and

[Christ’s

the

religion

land

The

o f

that:

hearts

Despite

of

he

State,

that

the

and

society

introducing

upon

that

agree

was

by

social,

of

at

companies.

government

indications

Rather,

whole

powerful

of

1954

government

programme

Secretary

stage.

political,

US

position

Revolution.

in

m A i n T E n A n C E

States.”

Historians

of

the

his

A n d

that:

are

United

Guatemala

his

provisional

there

consolidate

Cuban

declaration

Eisenhower

“the

in

C o n s o l i d A T i o n

to

the

most

with

his

the

of

lengths

their

cautiously

1959

needed

coup

the

repeated

he

future

a

of

C A s T R o ’ s

in

could

in

of

the

he

US

US

1959,

and

1959–1960

USSR,

thus

closer

communists.

Events

beyond

C a s t r o ’s

control

changed

the

situation

further

and,

Bay of Pigs Invasion in

May

1961

(immediately

after

the

U S A’s

failed

Bay

of

Pigs

On 17 April 1961 a group of anti-Castro Invasion ),

he

publicly

declared

that

the

Cuban

Revolution

was

a

Cubans who had ed to the USA launched socialist

one

and

that

towards

communism

Cuba

was

a

communist

state.

The

move

an invasion of Cuba intended to overthrow had,

h o w e v e r,

begun

during

the

earliest

days

Castro. Within three days they had been of

the

new

government,

when,

recognizing

the

need

for

politically

defeated and captured. Within a week, the experienced

officials,

Castro

gave

members

of

the

Popular

Socialist

world knew that the failed invasion attempt Party

(Partido

Socialista

Popular

or

PSP)

positions

of

p o w e r.

His

had been planned, funded and (at least in brother

Raúl

was

a

communist

and

naturally

had

some

influence

part) executed by the USA. over

to

F i d e l ’s

the

decisions,

other

communists

successful

in

in

but

communists.

from

this

power

(a

soon

there

Castro

and

further

by

four

was

open

responded

November

by

resistance

removing

1959

he

anti-communists

had

were

to

him

these

been

and

anti-

mostly

removed

1960).

81

2

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

While

communist/Marxist

inuence

is

visible

in

some

of

his

early

INRA policies

(especially

land

reform

and

nationalization),

Castro’s

social

and

The National Institute of Agrarian Reform, economic

policies

were

drawn

from

a

more

nationalist,

pro-Cuban

and

established in 1959. anti-imperialist

the

Directorio Revolucionario Estudantil (DRE)

The DRE had been an anti-Batista student

movement. From c.1960–1965 they

became an anti-Castro resistance group,

joining the rebels in the Escambray

inequities

Spanish

in

the

head

ready

the

to

within

then

service

of

trying

and

of

the

US

needed

society

decades

of

after

corrupt

corporations.

said

from

They

Cuban

six

INRA,

move

for

perspective.

to

an

feudalism

to

be

radical

centuries

of

Antonio

reporter

enlightened

in

to

working

Núñez

in

order

redress

domination

governments

As

American

to

by

Jiménez,

1959,

capitalism.

the

primarily

“We

then

are

Cuba

is

only

not

socialism.”

Mountains. When those rebels were In

1961

the

26

July

Movement,

the

Directorio

Revolucionario

DR

(the

Directorio

Revolucionario,

defeated, the DRE was also nished as a the

successor

to

the

the

PSP

were

merged

to

which

became

the

Estudantil

or

DRE)

and

political threat. With dwindling numbers, form

the

Integrated

Revolutionary

Organizations

and lack of success, the DRE eventually (ORI),

Communist

Party

of

Cuba

(PCC)

in

1965.

disbanded in December 1966.

Castro’s leadership of Cuba, 1959–1962

Becoming the leader of Cuba

A

provisional

and

the

January

became

They

1959.

president

one

of

appointed

to

the

same

made

time,

the

been

both

By

In

April

Fidel Castro with Manuel Urrutia Lleó in 1959

reopened

example

1

the

tension

minister

2

Fidel

made

in

his

a

and

and

Putting

of

the

habitual

head,

political

he

put

in

jobs

could

radical

young

conservative

method

would

of

Castro

It

and

other

in

Thus

in

soon

the

ORPC.

closed

to

in

down

Cuba

ahead

and

had

became

countries

these

in

a

the

Castro

unemployed

for

Cuba

body

(something

returned

casinos

found

This

use

considerations

the

of

the

guerrilla

and

Urrutia

newly

of

brothels

workers.

early

to

urban

to

This

1959:

revolutionary-turned-prime

president

leadership:

simply

consensus.

be

issues

the

good

Castro

these

of

place

place.

visiting

ordered

major

to

rebels

was

organization

Guevara.

resigned

his

with

Cuba.

three

(ORPC).

in

Lleó

minister.

forces.

an

from

in

Urrutia

Castro

Ofce

Che

President

from

Castro

the

was

had

was

USA,

in

and

had

Castro

regime

implementation

system

socio-economic

the

the

more

Castro

anger

alternative

two

Raúl

minister

casinos

and

armed

condants

lay

only

Fidel

established

Miró

power

the

the

Coordination

Mao

1959

while

and

between

and

Castro’s

forming

82

until

and

prime

included

of

Fidel

Batista

Manuel

M-26-7).

reforms:

closest

prime

objections,

highlights

land

brother

true

1959,

protests

moral

be

that

America

workers.

▲

his

Lenin

brothels

nd

his

judge

efcient

governmental

appointed

Latin

the

Plans

of

also

and

by

the

Cardona

that

from

Castro

February

apparent

Miró

cabinet

came

rapid

including

past).

a

José

agrarian

up

dual-power

which

and

over

Revolutionary

war,

well-respected

whom

proposed

was

appointed

replacing

commander-in-chief

oversee

his

was

leadership,

The

presided

(only

At

government

M-26-7

act

on

it

once

rather

a

decision

than

was

debating

and

C H A P T E R

This

preference

feature

of

he

a

to

was

C A s T R o ’ s

for

Castro’s

dictator.

suspend

and

2 . 2 :

secure

revolution

promised,

it

even

held

following

was

established,

agrarian

reforms

and

This

superseding

was

just

positions

of

a

number

rebel

Air

pilot

Force

one

whom

in

provoked

theatrical

resigned

this

was

reforms

Urrutia

of

to

as

in

was

anticipated

Urrutia

His

a

power

that

agents

result:

resigned

in

and

serve

was

that

decision

revolution

counter-

elections

would,

in

a

in

he

(INRA)

economist

charge

of

the

months,

real

the

government

of

this

a

slide

him

televised

that

Pedro

of

the

and

his

to

would

no

government”.

staunchly

the

In

an

people,

on

anger

act

to

the

state

nd

that

social

that

“plenty

achieved

and

of

Castro

declared

doubt

Castro

spontaneous

the

implement

went

the

communism.

broadcast,

He

June

Lanz,

took

Castro.

of

in

allies

Revolutionary

he

towards

and

Díaz

While

traitor,

refusal

he

given

anti-Batista

communism

reason.

as

being

other

Chief

Lanz

the

and

needed.

of

in

Within

protest.

as

Urrutia’s

his

Reform

Marxist

Cuba’s

understanding

and

in

his

the

Agrarian

and

communists

between

his

outpouring

July

ill

and

Osvaldo

remained

Dorticós

when

brother

an

for

people

treason

by

his

demands

for

resignation.

decisions

2008,

President

poorest

to

of

against

and,

19 5 9 – 19 6 2

constant

accusation

US-funded

free

Castro.

inuence

resigned

struggle

a

P o w E R ,

government.

resigned

revealed

planning

replacement,

replaced

at

Cuba’s

to

appointed

warn

INRA

members

condemned

minister

protest

American

Urrutia’s

publicly

prime

that

also

a

for

becoming

examples

M-26-7

had

of

leader

The

only

thus

increasing

Castro

be

consolidate

and

Institute

head.

ministers

Fair

to

the

supported

to

threat

troop

provisional

many

Urrutia

genius

its

proved

o f

weren’t.

rebel

ORPC,

Some

the

time

m A i n T E n A n C E

degree,

further

allow

answerable

January,

opportunity

This

of

cabinet

anti-communist

at

some

was

National

Urrutia’s

about

of

the

the

power.

complained

They

A n d

words

to

invasion.

former

and

than

ever-present

Jiménez

absorbed

to

all-out

shortly.

with

Núñez

order

the

an

month,

Antonio

rather

supporting,

accusation

in

against

or

be

had

This

elections

The

INRA

action

rule,

C o n s o l i d A T i o n

and

health

took

sanctuary

Dorticós,

president

he

until

remained

prompted

was

in

more

1976.

President

him

to

step

the

Venezuelan

amenable

In

of

to

December

Cuba

down

in

Embassy.

Castro’s

1976

until

Castro

February

favour

of

his

Raúl.

Consolidating the revolution

As

a

early

as

December

single-party

leader”

state,

(Máximo

●

Political

●

Newspapers

they

Cuba

Fidel

was

Castro

well

as

its

on

its

way

towards

unimpeachable

becoming

“supreme

Líder).

parties

were

and

angered

the

●

Communist-led

●

All

judicial

●

All

legislative

cabinet

1960,

with

banned.

radio

stations

were

censored

and

forced

to

close

if

government.

trade

unions

appointees

and

were

executive

(appointed

by

were

made

growing

with

power

Castro).

in

ever

Castro’s

Cuba

was

more

powerful.

approval.

in

the

hands

of

the

▲

Propaganda poster from 1976 showing Castro

as a young man

83

2

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

Despite

Batista

his

in

promises

1954

provisional

years.

he

of

be

this

his

the

parties

Cuba

a

the

election

could

the

of

their

easily

after

all,

the

a

he

least

many

to

four

that

other

allow

him

to

counter-

hypocritical)

of

the

permit

US

corporate,

had

CIA

coup

tried

to

agents

was

political

around

police

nation.

and

Other

criminal

buy

still

never

by

chaotic,

freely

weakened

by

with

not

wander

the

move

traditionally

could

to

Maa

US-sponsored

at

inevitable

the

security

Furthermore,

of

of

bought

so

by

allies.

supporters

the

the

(and

Because

like

for

held

Urrutia’s

announced

measure

before

politics,

Castro

was,

those

(through

parties

1959,

dictatorial

(unlike

acts

political

restructuring

be

–

rst

This

and

maintain

Batista.

all

April

USA

a

elections

temporary

Cuban

also

threat

a

sound.

was

to

elements

for

be

gangs

he

order

in

revolution

be

of

armed

ban

elections.

the

to

free

Castro’s

the

active

far

in

from

mind.

Castro

“real

his

by

to

to

the

and

of

USA

the

was

when

in

parties

c o u n t r y,

his

to

time

forces

was

the

nature

their

government

1952

of

appears

corrupt

political

or

gains

fair

one

intended

reasoning

and

at

armed

to

attempts

this

his

violent,

hold

suspending

revolutionary

Castro,

trip

time,

consolidate

Although

to

1958),

government)

During

would

laws

and

explained

democracy

enemies

deliver

and

the

immediately

his

is

postponement

not

possible

former

elections

after

his

for

supporters

as

one

of

of

the

elections

hungry

alike

the

people”.

have

major

by

declaring:

Nevertheless,

identied

failings

of

his

the

failure

years

victory.

Consolidating power

In

1963

(PURS)

the

ORI

and,

Communist

leader.

well

the

Party

Within

a

mostly

instances

where

February

1968

provoked

dealt

PCC

In

of

after

1972

roles

this

able

of

to

Castro

his

by

years

deal

from

in

ensured

undisputed

of

within

no

more

stable

and

elements

some

For

peaceful

sectarianism.

was

was

however,

communists

there

Revolution

named

its

measures.

policy

for

was

opposition

were,

USSR’s

that

newly

government

repressive

leaders

Socialist

the

various

There

to

the

the

the

Castro

Cuban

the

hardline

arresting

of

1965,

the

means.

of

Party

announcing

with

resorted

criticism

trial

was

(PCC)

democratic

their

Castro’s

being

the

of

this

by

and

terrorist

perception

unlimited

shared

remained

won

he

United

the

example,

in

co-existence

PCC.

The

He

public

trouble

from

the

that.

committee

he

the

Cuba

opposition

with

example

time

of

couple

established,

through

84

by

became

the

the

among

Cuban

attacks,

of

rights.

cabinet.

spiritual

aggressive

Castro

power

as

of

of

of

the

which

Cuba’s

reduced,

the

of

the

USA,

served

defender

with

newly

However,

gurehead

actions

all

was

members

to

all

He

the

and

was

the

protector

of

his

executive

continued

strengthen

and

number

intents

nation.

which

to

a

enlarged

purposes,

helped

its

in

embargo

public

of

their

hard-

C H A P T E R

2 . 2 :

C A s T R o ’ s

C o n s o l i d A T i o n

A n d

m A i n T E n A n C E

o f

P o w E R ,

19 5 9 – 19 6 2

L TA

Research and thinking skills

Historians and other commentators from all sides of the political spectrum have

argued ercely about the rights and wrongs of Castro’s actions during his rule over

Cuba. One of the most impor tant questions is whether Castro’s decision to make

Cuba a Marxist/communist state was deliberate or forced on him by the actions

of the USA and, to a lesser degree, the USSR. Many sources, especially online

historical summaries, por tray their chosen side of the argument through:

●

carefully selecting what information to include and what to omit

●

deliberate blurring of the chronology to imply the “cause and consequence”

chain that ts their agenda.

For greater understanding of the dierent viewpoints, read and compare the

accounts of dierent historians. See the References and fur ther reading section

for the Castro section for some suggestions.

Castro’s challenges, January 1959

Post-Batista Cuba faced a number of problems and challenges. Castro’s solutions are

listed below.

Problem

1

Inequities in land ownership

2

Inequities in society

Solution

Radical land reform; nationalization of large landholdings

Universal education and universal health care; improvement and

enforcement of labour laws; removal of racist barriers to careers and

promotion prospects; rent reductions of 30–50 per cent (March 1959)

3

The need for transparent social justice

Reform of judiciary and police; arrest, trial and punishment of

members of the Batista regime (especially Batista’s tor turers and

murderers); televising the trials and executions of the most notorious

criminals from Batista’s regime

4

5

Endemic corruption

Ownership or control of much of Cuba’s

Punishment of corrupt ocials and policemen; increase in pay

Nationalization of industries

economy by US corporations

6

Economy in severe trouble (massive graduate

Creation of jobs in towns; temporary reopening of casinos and brothels;

unemployment; unfavourable trade conditions

land reform/redistribution; economic ties with USSR after 1960

with USA; rural poverty; urban unemployment)

7

Lack of democracy

Reintroduction of parliamentary democracy; reinstatement of

political par ties; fair and free elections

8

9

Lack of a united vision for the “new Cuba”

Banning of political par ties; unication of the main groups

by anti-Batista forces

(for example, M-26-7, PSP and DR to form ORI, eventually the PCC)

Potential counter-revolution from

Banning of political par ties; a people’s militia (as a counterbalance to

within Cuba

the army whose loyalty remained dubious); arrest of Batista loyalists;

letting those who opposed the revolution to leave (at rst)

10

Potential counter-revolution from

Strengthening of the armed forces; establishment of people’s militia;

outside Cuba

cultivation of alliances/friendships with USSR; help for revolutionary groups

inside those Latin American countries that had tried to destabilize Cuba

11

Potential invasion by foreign countries

As above; the Dominican coup attempt foiled (August 1959) through

luck; defeat of the Bay of Pigs Invasion (April 1961)

85

2

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

Problem

12

13

Solution

Anxiety from domestic economic interests

Reassuring them that he was not a communist (until May 1961); land

(Cuban planters, bankers and business

reform aimed at weakening the biggest landowners in favour of the smaller

elites) about what would happen

ones; reiterating desire for continued trade with USA (until 1960–1961)

Anxiety from the middle classes

Instructing victorious anti-Batista forces (in 1959) to respect private

(professionals such as doctors, lawyers,

property and the rule of law; reiterating that he was not a communist (until

businessmen) about what would happen

May 1961); enforcing the law; nationalizing large landholdings (especially

foreign-owned plantations); promoting Cuban-owned smaller plantations

14

15

Anxiety from foreign economic interests

Limited nationalization of industries/businesses (after 1960 this

(most notably US corporations and the

increased dramatically in reaction to US pressure); strengthened

Maa) about what would happen

counter-inteligence services to catch CIA and Maa agents

Economic destabilization attempts by the

Nationalization of industries; propaganda campaign to ensure loyalty

“Colossus to the Nor th” (the USA) and its

to the revolution (shor t-term solution); education policies designed to

Latin American allies

ensure loyalty to the revolution (long-term solution)

US actions in Guatemala

In the early 1950s, with the Cold War entering its early stages between the USA

and the USSR, it was deemed imperative to American security that Latin American

states remained rmly in the hands of pro-US leaders. Even if this meant that

less-than-democratic methods were used to install and maintain these regimes.

There is increasing evidence about the role played by US corporations in directing

US foreign policy at this time. For example, in 1954 the United Fruit Company’s

pressure upon the US government paid o and the CIA orchestrated a coup d’état

against the democratically-elected (and highly popular) Guatemalan government

of Colonel Jacobo Árbenz Guzmán. The main impetus for the United Fruit

Company’s eor ts to remove the Guatemalan government were due to the labour

laws brought in by Árbenz’s government during the 1940s. These laws were

intended to protect workers from the notoriously brutal conditions employed

by the United Fruit Company (and other corporations). As a result of their loss in

prots, these corporations pressured the American government into continuing

their much-maligned involvement in Latin American aairs.

The CIA coup sparked a thir ty-year civil war and brought untold misery to

L TA

Guatemala and the region. Che Guevara witnessed rsthand the actions of the

Thinking skills US-trained death squads and became convinced that the only way to combat

1

Create your own copy of the table on the American corporate imperialism in Latin America was through force.

previous page. Despite the best eor ts of CIA investigators to prove the link between Arbenz

2

Cut out each problem and each solution and the USSR, the only evidence that could be found from all the Guatemalan

to make a mix-and-match sorting documents seized after the coup was two unpaid bills (one for $12.35 and the

activity to help you revise this topic. other for $10.60) from a Moscow bookshop.

3

Highlight the problems/solutions in a It has been suggested that the Director of the CIA (Alan Dulles) and the Secretary

specic colour to indicate which factor of State (his brother, John Foster Dulles) were the main driving forces behind

they are most associated with (political, encouraging US involvement in Guatemala. They both had signicant business

social, economic, military or other). interests in the United Fruit Company. This is similar to the connection between

This will help you plan and construct

Dick Cheney (US Vice-President 2001–2009) and the invasion and occupation of

an essay about how eectively Castro

Iraq (2003–2011) which proved extremely protable for Hallibur ton – a company

consolidated his control over Cuba after

which he had signicant business interests in. The United Fruit Company is

January 1959.

currently trading under the name Chiquita Brands International.

86

C H A P T E R

2 . 2 :

C A s T R o ’ s

C o n s o l i d A T i o n

A n d

m A i n T E n A n C E

o f

P o w E R ,

L TA

The US response to the Cuban Revolution,

1959–1962

The

pervading

coup

against

Guatemala

Lewis

For

Gaddis

its

Latin

role

fear

among

This,

described

the

America,

the

exactly

1954.

in

Thinking and communication skills

Fidel Castro, speaking in America in April

them,

in

19 5 9 – 19 6 2

as

revolutionaries

had

the

initial

Guatemalan

where

happened

however,

there

did

US

coup,

was

not

was

to

the

now

a

USA

CIA-sponsored

as

Arbenz

immediately.

“remarkably

had

strong

a

President

occur

response

of

been

in

undercurrent

“I know what the world thinks of us,

John

we are communists, and of course I

calm”.

castigated

of

1959, said:

have said very clearly that we are not

in

communists; very clearly.”

support

http://www.upi.com/Archives/Audio/ for

communist

or

communist-afliated

nationalist

movements

that

Events-of-1959/Cuban-Revolution promised

a

visit

angry

in

to

had

challenge

Venezuela,

mobs.

Cuba

their

to

at

this

Latin

Tad

discussing

US

time

off

the

inuence.

would

be

of

President

military

rightly

potentially

neighbours,

but

that

military

as

early

1958,

for

motorcade

surmised

disastrous

did

not

as

was

for

during

attacked

to

by

intervene

relations

mean

National

March

example,

that

intervention.

Eisenhower’s

action

In

Nixon’s

administration

prospect

Szulc,

US

USA ’s

Vice-President

American

written

reporter

The

the

that

the

According

Security

with

Using your own knowledge of global issues

at that time, explain why Castro went to

great pains to publicly repeat this point.

USA

to

the

Council

was

1959.

Dealing with opposition to the revolution

The

early

years

opposition

●

the

●

members

●

of

from

Escambray

of

move

the

wealthy

The

growing

Castro

as

traitors

included

Batista

During

ght

Revolution

saw

Castro

faced

with

groups:

(War

Against

and

other

communism

middle

and

within

classes,

the

Bandits,

anti-Batista

but

who

did

had

group

the

in

forces.

leading

their

or

1960,

to

a

“War

utter

of

that

1958

revolution

communists

Some,

Others

members

December

and,

of

Cuba.

arrested.

some

Rebellion

with

of

M-26-7

inuence

from

Castro’s

them,

rebels

towards

student

in

region

Cuban

not

1960–1965)

groups

take

hoped

up

that

who

opposed

arms

their

interests

would

protected.

to

units

the

variety

the

the

be

a

chose

the

had

DRE,

they

they

had

the

Other

ve-year

Against

ghting

active

disaffected

guerrilla

the

their

more

with

for

in

Che

the

the

and

campaign

that

of

were

direct

action.

and

of

there,

Batista

(called

in

This

anti-

Santa

Escambray

ended

resistance

denounced

Guevara’s

city

hideouts

rebels

Bandits”)

forms

Matos,

anti-communist

forces

to

various

take

the

been

returned

to

Huber

to

joined

during

led

like

M-26-7

Clara.

mountain

prepared

loyalists

the

to

joined

Escambray

January

1965

destruction.

87

2

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

The Escambray Rebellion, 1960–1965

Following Castro’s victory in January 1959, some soldiers still loyal to Batista

decided to continue the ght from the Escambray Mountains. They were

soon joined by others (including William Alexander Morgan) who disliked

the pro-communist leanings of the new government and by peasant farmers

disenchanted with the land reforms. The Escambray Rebellion (known in Cuba as

“Lucha contra Bandidos”, the War Against The Bandits) was a guerrilla campaign

similar in style to Castro’s own Sierra Maestra campaign against Batista’s forces.

These rebels enjoyed far less popular suppor t than the M-26-7 rebels had, but

they were given the same US military aid, via CIA and Maa agents, that the

previous regime had enjoyed. However, after the debacle of the Bay of Pigs

Invasion, the USA cut o funding and supplies to the rebels. Castro’s counter-

intelligence units were busily uncovering and arresting CIA agents and their

networks, and so it was only a matter of time before Castro’s numerically superior

forces defeated the rebels (in January 1965).

Huber Matos (1918–2014)

Castro

appointed

brilliant

of

rebel

Camagüey

his

province.

concerns

unfor tunate:

been

Huber

about

his

ignored

Matos,

commander

(the

new

Armed

Forces.

In

this

former

the

October

growing

previous

but

Castro

the

a

during

1959

let ter

was

he

inf luence

complaints

government ’s

teacher

Sierra

sent

most

to

wrote

of

the

Castro

two

and

farmer

Campaign,

days

a

who

resignation

after

the

the

had

military

communists.

about

prominent

as

let ter,

His

been

stating

timing

communists

appointment

communist)

as

a

governor

was

had

of

Minister

Raúl

of

the

Matos (along with many of his ocers) was immediately arrested for “rebellion”, tried

and sentenced to 20 years’ imprisonment. As Balfour states: “The Revolution was

beginning to devour its sons.”

Castro

1959

also

an

Trujillo

Castro.

The

All

and

Cuban

of

Pigs

the

exiles

88

acting

external

organized

on

advice

Morgan,

helped

for

to

Castro

aggressive

that

one

threats.

by

the

For

example,

Dominican

from

of

convince

of

denounced

just

helped

the

by

the

plot

CIA)

dictator

was

leaders,

Castro

ironically,

the

able

to

was

that

evidence

as

a

conrm

traitor.

The

of

the

led

in

August

Rafael

foiled

because

secretly

the

to

the

Cuban

identify

The

informed

revolution

USA ’s

With

who

as

by

the

The

exiles

was

far

the

as

failure

to

of

of

undo

of

ed

bastion

the

Bay

nationalism

the

Castro

agents

saviour

had

the

criticized

CIA

constant

who

wave

intentions

attacks

position

USA.

himself

ensuing

anyone

terrorist

Castro’s

from

and

oppression.

secure.

revolution

to

USA

clearly

imperialist

position

incontrovertible

changes

was

against

his

came,

actions

Castro

defence

Invasion,

positive

being

this

grace

meant

of

and

of

with

coup

yet.

saving

there

deal

Alexander

safe

threats

to

(probably

William

from

had

anti-Castro

and

Cuba.

Cuban

C H A P T E R

2 . 2 :

C A s T R o ’ s

C o n s o l i d A T i o n

A n d

m A i n T E n A n C E

o f

P o w E R ,

19 5 9 – 19 6 2

William Alexander Morgan (1928–196 1)

William Alexander Morgan was a US citizen who

in the March 1960 La Coubre explosion and, later,

volunteered to ght against Batista and had been recruited

accused of gunrunning to aid the anti-Castro rebels in the

to the M-26-7 when his rebel group joined forces with Che

Escambray Mountains. It was for the last of these that, in

Guevara’s during the Sierra Maestra campaign. The military

March 1961, he was executed by ring squad.

training gained during his time in the US army (where he

was possibly recruited by the CIA) served him well and he

was soon promoted to the rank of Comandante – one of

only three foreigners to hold that rank – the others being

Eloy Gutiérrez Menoyo (Spanish) and Ernesto “Che”

Guevara (Argentinian).

The US government has, unsurprisingly, denied claims

that El Yanqui Comandante (as he was known) was an

agent of the CIA. Morgan was one of the leaders of an

anti-Castro coup organised by Dominican dictator Rafael

Trujillo. However, Morgan had secretly informed Castro of

the plot and it failed. Possibly due to the persistent belief

William Alexander Morgan, US volunteer and suspected

▲

of his involvement with the CIA, Morgan was implicated

CIA agent, c. 1958

The USA’s economic war on Cuba in the early 1960s

In

response

businesses,

Cuba,

a

in

more

The

hope

partner

this

into

the

link.

the

pursuing

to

consolidate

towards

socialist

to

would

that

the

This

at

buy

a

relations

however,

for

their

the

deal

with

was

a

Castro

reform

was

universally

their

and

oil

too

who

its

to

provide

oil

and

in

nearest

and

refused

just

lost

US

their

overseas

paving

to

with

in

US

Soviet

taken

government

neighbour

an

over

was

up.

there

was

agreed

Soviet

in

oil

corporations

oil

and

by

almost

protable

way

existing

pass

return.

The

process

highly

to

instead

the

Khrushchev

oil

Cuba

uninterested

economy,

reneries.

unceremoniously

dependent

forcing

been

opportunity

USSR.

adopt

biggest

preferring

and

Cuba’s

weapons

of

to

to

USSR.

presented

an

the

the

the

America,

good

entirely

effect

exports

Castro

Cuba’s

previously

Europe

Cuba’s

angered

had

had

When

to

the

enemy,

cripple

turn

almost

had

Latin

USA.

reneries

and

USSR

was

at

can

its

communist,

responded

underway

available.

saviour

to

in

force

far,

all

Castro.

as

much

as

multi-million

becoming

an

ally

of

enemy.

the

it

but

was

by

foreign-owned

banned

would

was,

War

Eastern

seemed

suddenly

shocked

when

on

the

American

Cuban

global

grip

threatening

sugar

replace

Cold

Khrushchev,

with

Cuba

USA

embargo

USA ’s

and

government

starvation

The

expansion

it

plantations

US

economy

trade

the

Nikita

corporations

time

Cuba.

of

Cuban

the

of

the

stance.

USSR’s

investments:

Castro

was

the

themselves

greatest

the

embargo

naturally

dollar

its

US

now

US

1959

economic

communist

state,

owned

found

This

arms

better

the

and

alternative

1960

that

premier,

in

little

nationalization

However,

eager

Soviet

With

the

November

business-friendly

trading

on

to

in

and

by

he

credited

the

accelerating

health

far

as

had

with

vulnerable.

increased

and

As

be

most

care

Cuba’s

earned

saving

The

intensity

the

and

of

the

Cuban

now

class

loyalty

had

was

by

Revolution

convinced

embargo

nationalization

education

working

their

the

USA,

process.

both

Land

been

concerned,

keeping

his

that

against

made

Castro

promises.

89

2

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

Military problems and solutions in the early 1960s

The

to

ever-present

destabilize

that

The

Castro

rst

security

and

had

step

October

to

consolidate

to

the

save

forces

Cuba

at

destroy

loyalty

the

in

used

control

existing

of

the

was

1961

Pigs

He

military

when

this

Cuban

a

and

from

enough

victory,

people

was

delayed

for

the

Castro

and

so-called

section,

the

to

army

the

militias

the

army

the

He

other

trials

and

the

that

exile

to

to

armed

militias

Cuban

Cuban

military.

public

police,

enjoyed

itself.

and

“rebellion”

controls:

the

meant

killers.

armed

these

campaign

defend

and

and

CIA

attacks,

the

Courts

civil

It

the

position

created

BRAC).

they

and

terrorist

torturers

Matos’s

Cuba.

hated

long

in

loyalists

Batista’s

Huber

state

USA,

Revolutionary

of

over

the

Following

both

Cuba

the

through

counter-intelligence

April

Bay

by

Batista

the

worst

replaced

them.

of

the

military

(which

remove

Castro

the

that

through

his

invasion

Revolution

ensure

to

of

1959

complement

police

to

services,

In

of

Cuban

was

executions

forces,

threat

the

secret

helped

landing

arrive

and

unquestioning

never

lost

the

latter.

The Bay of Pigs invasion, April 196 1

In April 1961, Kennedy sent 1400 Cuban exiles who were

trained by the US military and the CIA to invade Cuba.

These Cubans, known as Brigade 2506, were taken by

civilian freighters and suppor ted by US warships. About

200 paratroopers were also dropped by US planes painted

in the Cuban air force colours.

The invasion was intended to spark a popular uprising

amongst the Cuban people and to lead to the over throwing

of the Castro government. It failed dramatically when

the Cuban militia discovered them and fought ercely

to prevent them establishing a beachhead. Although the

militia were outgunned by the invaders, they bought

valuable time for the Cuban army to launch a counter-

attack . Castro took personal command of the ght,

commandeering a tank and leading his forces in battle.

In an eor t to maintain plausible deniability, the USA did

not send any American troops to ght; they only provided

intelligence and logistical suppor t from their warships. The

hoped-for uprising did not occur as Castro’s police forces

immediately arrested the most prominent anti-Castro

activists in Cuba. Additionally, Cuban radio broadcast a

▲

Fidel Castro personally leads the Cuban counterattack

warning to the people that invaders were attempting to

against the CIA-led Cuban Exiles during the Bay of Pigs

undo the revolution, thus inspiring a massive surge of Invasion (April 196 1)

pro-Castro popularity.

they publicly admitted that they had been trained, nanced After three days, the Cuban exiles were defeated. 118

and equipped by the US. The US government were no longer were killed, 360 wounded and 1202 captured. On the

able to claim the moral high ground in the Cold War. Cuban side, casualties were far higher (mostly due to the

90

indiscriminate bombing by the US warplanes) – over 4000

The most signicant eects of this failed invasion were

civilians, militiamen and police were killed or wounded with

the way it showed the world that Castro had been correct

176 soldiers killed and over 500 wounded. The captured

about US intentions. It led almost directly to the Cuban

invaders were paraded in front of the world’s media and

Missile Crisis of October 1962.

C H A P T E R

The

in

threat

Latin

posed

1962

invasion

US

C A s T R o ’ s

by

America

October

the

2 . 2 :

attempt

a

not

and

go

direct

was

government

corporations

Castro’s

did

was

C o n s o l i d A T i o n

result

inevitable.

was

the

Cuba

under

Maa

to

the

unnoticed.

to

of

was

intense

try

USA ’s

The

Castro’s

He

A n d

allied

Cuban

probably

to

Crisis

that

right

from

depose

o f

P o w E R ,

19 5 9 – 19 6 2

dictatorships

Missile

conviction

pressure

again

m A i n T E n A n C E

in

of

another

this

Cuban

US

view,

exiles,

as

US

Castro.

The Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962

Khrushchev placed Soviet nuclear missiles on Cuba as a

from Italy and Turkey. West Berlin remained in US, British

bargaining chip to convince the USA, Britain, and France

and French hands. Castro was furious when the Soviets

to withdraw from West Berlin – as well as to discourage

reneged on their promise that their missiles would remain.

another American invasion attempt against Cuba. The

President Kennedy’s promise that the USA would not

ensuing confrontation with the US escalated and brought

invade Cuba did little to reassure him – although, so far,

both sides closer to a global nuclear war than ever before

successive US governments have honoured that promise

or since. The crisis was aver ted by the removal of the

(notwithstanding continuing attempts to kill Castro and to

Soviet missiles from Cuba and American nuclear missiles

destabilize the Cuban economy through terrorist attacks).

Soviet

missile

sites

in

Cuba

-

October

Atlantic

La

1962

Ocean

Isabela

Cardenas

Havana

Sagua Matanzas

Caibarien la

Grande

Havana

Remadios

Matanzas Nuevitas Guanajay Bahia

Las

Handa

Casilda

Pinar

del

Camagüey

Villas

San

Rio

La

Nicaro

Camagüey

Cristoba

Oriente

Colomo

Guantanamo

Santiago Isle

of de

Manzanilla

Cuba

Pines

Caribbean

Sea

US San

Naval

Julian

Base Air

Force

Base

Where

▲

were

operating:

Camps

Missile

sites

Ports

of

entry

Map showing Soviet missile sites in Cuba at the time of the Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962

Throughout

the

anti-imperialist

America.

Maestra

world,

Che

with

tortured

Guevara

to

of

his

and

Castro

degrees

led

of

some

where

executed

embarked

groups,

Cuban

1963–1965

Bolivia

and

Castro

sent

varying

personally

failure

mission

1960s,

revolutionary

campaign)

Guevara

the

Russians

by

his

a

(and

troops

these

group

policy

was

to

the

rebel

with

of

assisting

of

and

the

groups

his

In

Sierra

around

he

was

the

role,

shortly

Guevara

and

Bolivian

other

Latin

ministerial

1967,

Congo,

ambushed

team

of

Africa

veterans

assist

Bored

in

expeditions.

expedition

CIA-led

a

other

to

success.

of

on

especially

led

after

a

captured,

rangers.

91

2

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

▲

S TAT E S

An American car toon from 1962 showing the potential danger of nuclear missiles on Cuba. Note how the image is angled to

accentuate the size (and, therefore, perceived threat) of Cuba in relation to the USA.

In

1975,

Popular

Cuban

South

supporting

right-wing

and

(UNITA).

a

ceasere,

“Cuba’s

mired

The

After

but

in

this

shortage

National

not

of

war

a

as

a

and

Zairean

the

Americans

volunteers

mission.

that

for

to

to

Angola

to

of

Angola

(MPLA)

invasion

help

forces.

the

left-wing

against

Such

Liberation

the

Independence

Total

had

the

earned

way

been

Cuban

Angolan

the

itself

that

in

two

the

Cuban

Vietnam.

government

expedition

Front

sides

or

the

forces

National

ghting,

had

the

the

for

of

war

reference

is

the

Union

decade

before

–

deployed

Liberation

militants,

however,

humanitarian

the

African

almost

Vietnam”

comparison,

were

for

US-backed

(FNLA)

92

forces

Movement

of

of

Angola

negotiated

nickname

forces

One

of

became

point

never

the

were

Angola

had

of

a

accompanying

2.3

Csto’s domestic policies

Conceptual understanding

Key questions

➔

In his economic and social policies, what was Castro trying to achieve for

Cuba, and why?

➔

What were the problems that Castro faced?

➔

What were the results of his policies and how did he react?

➔

To what extent did his policies change between 1959 and the early

21st century?

Key concepts

➔

Signicance

➔

Consequences

Economic relations with the USSR

The

the

shift

ever

not

of

from

USSR

after

closer

to

declare

Pigs

Assembly

had

in

Cuban

however,

in

that

a

missiles,

vulnerable

invasion

–

to

its

the

only

president’s

not

happen.

the

two

(with

violent

1968).

However,

were

making

actions

misgivings

espoused

in

by

with

the

the

of

threat

the

and

the

Lenin,

April

from

the

photographs

the

UN

of

a

Cuba

1961

did

Bay

Cuban

General

grinning

rst

in

Castro

Soviet

again

of

of

move

the

1968

terms

by

USSR’s

in

August

Guevara

communist

preferring

US

the

good

for

left

a

would

end

on

Che

at

the

1962,

being

this

the

support

speech

Although

on

drew

USA,

real

by

cheers

reliance

Cuba

Cubans.

once

back

after

and

country

Czechoslovakia

Castro

about

his

protection

expressing

Both

October

that

USSR.

until

time,

hotel

was

promise

nations

Castro

publicly

very

economic

shift,

world.

withdrawal

Cuba

the

raucous

same

to

cheerful

the

of

of

of

Khrushchev’s

the

used

play

needs

USA

political

state

1960

relationship.

had

the

a

ideology

former’s

over

Crisis

power

the

At

the

this

USSR

it

communist

equally

all

Khrushchev’s

nuclear

US

an

on

with

November

York.

seen

soured

broader

a

punctuated

Missile

the

be

outside

disregarding

With

in

New

were

reliance

brought

communist

to

embracing

Harlem

felt

the

itself

Khrushchev

The

1960

Invasion,

delegation

Castro

economic

had

model

instead

to

▲

Fidel Castro embracing Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev in 1960 when the two

leaders met at the UN General Assembly in New York

93

2

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

create

a

which

system

they

more

lived.

was

increasingly

The

Cuban

Soviet

suited

However,

dependent

state

therefore

to

the

by

Latin

1968,

on

the

began

American

Guevara

USSR

to

for

adopt

environment

was

dead

Cuba’s

many

of

and

economic

the

in

Castro

survival.

structures

of

the

state.

initially, seen as rather moderate by most contemporaries,

Castro’s communism

although this soon changed when he began nationalizing Historians (e.g., Ramonet, Balfour and Coltman) tend to the large landholdings and other businesses of US agree that Castro was not a communist at this stage. Rather, corporations and wealthy Cuban planters. Never theless, he was a nationalist whose policies were less governed by even the US vice-president, Richard Nixon, stated after the doctrines of Marx or Lenin and more so by the needs meeting Castro in 1959 that he was not a communist and of nationalism and Cuban independence, with a strong that the US and Castro could and should work together. focus upon political, social and economic improvements

designed to benet the whole of society rather than just

Events beyond Castro’s control changed this and, in

the wealthy elites. When he was introducing his agrarian

May 1961 (immediately after the failed Bay of Pigs

reforms, for example, Castro even drew upon Catholic

Invasion) he publicly declared that the Cuban Revolution

rhetoric by likening his policies to Christ’s teachings.

was a socialist one and that Cuba was a communist state.

However, even though the open declaration of Cuba as Despite the Catholic Church’s history of suppor t for a communist state only took place in 1961, the move the wealthy classes against the poor, Castro did not towards Communism had begun during the earliest days immediately move against organized religion as most of the new government. communist rulers did. His economic reforms were,

Economic problems and solutions

Prior

to

Castro’s

unfavourable

Cuban

from

to

had

Batista.

been

hoped

than

many

for.

the

for

many

landless

policies

fairly

and

there

was

some

areas

removed

not

The

take

in

its

as

more

even

the

into

to

especially

decided

Cuba

this

to

effects

some

to

of

Soviet

decentralized

in

freedom,

themselves,

the

working

liberalization

working

US

advice

planning

order

to

classes.

had

and

hours.

to

to

came

a

By

gone

allow

By

far.

Castro’s

this

greater

sense

however,

felt

more

mid-1960s

fell

in

policies

view

against

greater

He

rewarded.

paid

the

had

does

Cuba.

liberalization

as

well

productivity.

opportunities

1985,

avoid

especially

management

growing

too

moderate

to

production

embargo

and

be

available)

poorly

although

encourage

however,

leading

–

trade

more

themselves

However,

hard

to

supporters

decision

commentators,

work

the

Castro

revolution,

back-breaking

Cuba.

without

sporadically

found

promised

Cubans

north.

the

(only

peasants

in

the

many

away

were

were

conscious

to

Castro

they

many

reforms

before

work

shorter

people

incentives

market

and

following

with

among

that

for

agrarian

seen

wealthier

democracy

that

a

had

from

allegiance

However,

degree

been

and

which

their

that

restore

high

suffered

Americas,

out

quo”.

The

shortage

the

the

as

had

USA,

shift

neighbour

been

according

account

of

possibly

had

this

rights

labour

enrich

the

areas.

peasants

more

a

material

greater

to

had

changed

the

would

status

promised

rural

incentive

saw

not

Cuba

because,

economy,

ofcials

94

given

1970s

With

in

with

tour

belligerent

impoverished

Castro’s

1959

anticipated,

their

economy

Coltman points

“Castro

Castro’s

had

Cuban

businessmen

economic

though

Unemployment

in

his

that

the

–

antagonizing

other

situation.

hoping

disappointed

the

conditions

and

During

this

undermining

had

trade

planters

redress

victory,

of

for

corrupt

dissatisfaction,

Castro

that

the

had

economic

C H A P T E R

plan

proposed

by

the

Central

Planning

Board

in

2 . 3 :

1985

C A s T R o ’ s

was

d o m E s T i C

P o l i C i E s

ignoring

The Rectication Campaign, the

nation’s

economist

from

economic

whose

ofce

and

Rectication

moving

Humberto

department

new

back

effort

of

stamp

a

pioneered

more

out

Pérez,

the

was

the

this

established

1986–1987

towards

to

had

committee

Campaign

Cuba

determined

a

needs.

to

Moscow-trained

plan,

create

launched

centrally

that

plan.

the

The

After following the advice from the USSR

intention

economy

had

1986–1987

removed

new

with

planned

corruption

was

a

begun

and

to

of

was

set

a

in.

to liberalize the Cuban economy, Castro

grew unhappy with the resulting return

to corruption and inequality. The trade

unions protested against being treated as

a “production army” by the government.

The INRA , nationalization and land reform Their protest took the form of reduced

As

promised

in

his

Moncada

Programme

of

1953,

Castro

was

keen

to

productivity and worker absenteeism.

implement

reforms

that

would

improve

the

lives

of

the

peasants.

His

initial

Castro appeased them by publicly

reforms

adversely

affected

only

the

wealthiest

landowners

while

providing

apologizing for his and his government’s

short-term

economic

benets

for

the

vast

majority

of

the

Cuban

population;

attitude, and launched the Rectication

the

macro-economic

impact

would

only

be

felt

in

subsequent

years.

The

Campaign to undo these mistakes. This

reforms

involved

nationalizing

major

industries

(for

example,

public

is indicative of the humility with which

utilities,

the

power

companies

and

the

telephone

company

–

all

US-owned),

he conducted himself at times – a stark

drastically

reducing

rents,

and

breaking

up

large

landholdings

(with

some

turning

them

contrast to most leaders, authoritarian

exceptions

such

as

sugar

plantations)

into

smaller

units

and

or otherwise.

into

cooperatives

Land

was

peasants.

which

paid

the

conscated

More

they

to

the

Castro

for

land

nancial

their

tax

of

inuence

in

was,

companies

worked

but,

the

It

in

a

by

was

the

in

US

the

of

now

the

many

government

at

of

that

that

having

these

and

deeds

the

In

the

order

their

was

on

to

was

would

a

of

of

dodge

by

caught

create

level

land

used

they

been

to

the

land

corruption

corporations

media

to

to

Compensation

therefore,

records.

compensation

Incensed

title

undervalued

value

1950s.

redistributed

the

(and,

ofce

same

the

highlighted

severely

this

then

in

landlords.

land

tax

China

given

that

the

using

had

and

wealthy

move

creation,

US

for

were

for

value

calculating

own

communist

peasants

nationalized.

their

over

in

corporations

was

message

reform

large

calculated

US

returns.

that

trap

anti-Castro

Land

was

the

those

000

owners

government

the

from

200

government,

taxes,

ofcial

to

previously

former

compensation)

their

than

had

previous

paying

similar

in

the

receive

in

a

exercised

strongly

audiences.

eyes

of

the

M-26-7

leaders,

the

path

towards

The Agrarian Reform Laws achieving

had

his

the

the

example

victory

agrarian

the

social

in

Five-Year

different

to

and

Plan

but

the

October

(and,

country

of

justice

a

led

same

Republic

extent,

to

the

basic

inspired

Chairman

(1953–1957).

the

had

People’s

1949,

lesser

had

that

urban)

widely

The

of

Mao

revolution.

China

in

work

had

that

acclaimed

still

to

Zedong

reforms

situation

principle

the

had

was,

from.

also

With

introduced

rapid

transformed

successes

Cuba

They

of

of

the

First

The Agrarian Reform Laws of 1959–

1963 called for the nationalization of

large landholdings (over 1000 acres for

Cuban companies and over 3000 acres

for foreign companies) and the most

course,

productive plantations. This allowed land

applied:

to be redistributed among impoverished ●

social

●

the

●

only

and

economic

justice

was

long

overdue

plantation workers and small plantation

peasants

were

desperate

for

the

promised

owners, or be taken by the government

improvements

itself to be used as state farms or rapid

and

radical

action

could

achieve

these

aims

before

their

cooperatives. patience

The

out

nationalization

corporations

prots.

(as

wore

and

However,

well

as

plantation

some

of

the

the

of

owners)

and

turmoil

large

largest

plantations

middle

were

certainly

landowners

majority

the

ensued.

of

the

they

Cuban

classes

supportive

as

and

of

irked

lost

business

the

more

Castro’s

the

their

and

US

enormous

banking

numerous

agrarian

sectors

smaller

reforms,

which

95

2

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

promised

Castro

a

rejuvenation

succeeded

consolidate

his

in

of

their

dividing

position

as

his

ruler

fortunes.

By

opposition

of

gaining

and

their

buying

support,

himself

time

to

Cuba.

Social problems and solutions

Castro

for

all

was

adamant

Cuban

the

racism

the

opportunities

descent.

to

no

the

that

Black

hope

process

of

against

under

Cubans

was

were

would

this

into

on

still

criticism

the

his

there

of

had

were

African

still

the

grounds

of

making

either

however,

intolerant

(in

of

it

attitude

black

or

of

and

soldiers.

race.

between

European

1940s)

to

life

addressing

differences

class

sexuality.

towards

improving

into

those

the

illegal

gender

was

and

working

had

promotion

society,

about

inroads

marked

descent

Batista

was

made

predominantly

allow

wider

Revolution

Batista

although

permitted,

for

Cuban

Cuba,

Cubans

advancing,

people

prejudice

for

the

Although

blighted

that

extrapolated

that

people.

had

little

begun

Castro

discriminate

One

Castro

area

has

in

which

come

homosexuality.

Health care and education in Castro’s Cuba

▲

96

Cuban schoolchildren with por trait of Che Guevara, 2004

Once in power, Castro quickly began implementing the

(especially roads and electricity), which meant that the

promised social changes, including free universal health

improvements to health care could reach even the most

care and education. A massive vaccination programme

remote and needy areas. Castro also ensured that all

began in 1962 and by 1971 polio, malaria and

Cuban citizens could access high-quality education up to

diphtheria had been eradicated. The centrally planned

and including university level. The literacy rate grew from

economy allowed investment in rural infrastructure

78 per cent in 1953 to 99.8 per cent in 2014.

C H A P T E R

2 . 3 :

C A s T R o ’ s

d o m E s T i C

P o l i C i E s

Control of the media

After

taking

power

anti-revolutionary

would,

he

inciting

this

the

promised,

outspoken

promise,

history

(and

real

that

increase

or

as

the

communists.

that

of

Franqui

overdue

Castro’s

still

fair

able

ran

and

to

go

into

counter

free

had

Cuba

his

of

who

public

valid,

were

often

his

rather

with

his

Martí’s

least

their

Cuba

that

in

being

family.

aims

with

Radio

closure

allies

Rebelde

not

imprisoned

establishing

the

as

or

Nonetheless,

of

and

against

toward

was

degree.

the

out

Castro

leanings

however,

at

1959,

meant

some

dismissal

spoke

former

his

to

on

throughout

dissent

with

invaluable

than

professed

at

and

reneged

In

threatened

Even

critics,

measure

communists

Castro

security.

stations

the

the

counter-revolution

voiced

disliked

silence

governments

radio

run

José

with

threatened

stance.

of

exile

to

of

to

temporary

supporters,

probably

campaign)

example,

quick

a

dictatorial

were

and

treatment

For

was

political

who

as

US-sponsored

inuence

Maestra

Batista.

was

methods

Franqui,

own

by

journalists

their

was

However,

interest

or

inuence

communist

Sierra

the

magazines

changed

his

given

argument

and

Castro

intended

shortly.

from

invasion

security

Carlos

the

was

revoked

today):

US

Newspapers,

they

as

a

1959,

This

excuse

communist

unless

during

the

professors

in

Castro

(such

be

used

of

public

University

arrest.

still

January

criticism

using

threat

the

in

media.

brutal

killed,

Castro’s

the

long

dreams.

Cuban refugees

Since before independence, Cubans wishing to ee

their homeland for whatever reason have travelled to

Miami in Florida and the surrounding area, and a “Cuban

exile” community has grown there. This community was

already strong enough in the 19th century for José Mar tí

to be able to go to them for help in nancing his war of

independence in 1895.

Since the revolution, there have been many ights to the

USA from Cuba, especially by the educated and wealthy

middle classes who feared that post-revolutionary Cuba

would deny them their privileged positions. The largest

emigrations have been:

▲

–

The Cuban exodus from Camarioca, 1965

1959–1960: Cubans worried about the change of

–

Apr–Oct 1980: the Mariel Boatlift. Around 125 000

regime and what it might bring.

Cubans from across the social spectrum (but mostly –

1960–1962: Operation Peter Pan, in which the young, male and working class) made it across to the Catholic Church helped Cuban parents to send their USA, to ee the poor economic situation in Cuba. children to be fostered in the USA .

– –

Jul–Aug 1994: the Malecón Exodus. Due to the

Oct–Nov 1965: the Camarioca Exodus. Castro economic and humanitarian crisis caused by the announced that any Cubans wishing to leave for the collapse of the Soviet Union, about 35 000 Cubans USA could do so from Camarioca; 2979 Cubans left took up Castro’s oer to emigrate to the USA after the Cuba for Miami. Malecón protests showed the level of discontent.

–

1965–1973: “Freedom Flights”. Twice-daily ights Additionally,

many

Cubans

who

have

tried

to

escape

to

from Cuba to Miami allowed Cubans with relatives in the

USA

on

the

S traits

homemade

boats

and

rafts

have

drowned

in

the USA to ee Cuba. According to the Miami Herald, of

Florida

and

do

not

feature

in

the

statistics.

265 297 Cubans made this journey.

97

2

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

Social control and repression

Many

his

of

the

Batista

and

later

of

same

their

by

crimes.

is

Castro’s

not

rapid,

Revolution

vigilantism.

the

and

suffer

victory

These

show

the

the

the

in

trials

sports

anarchy,

have

of

stadium

has

in

War.

conducted

the

that

Cuban

a

the

US

and

a

●

the

as

after

the

sent

when

these

committing

that

the

reprisals

a

clear

uphold

the

Batista’s

“revolutionary

message

the

law

or

did

violence

Bolshevik

Nazis,

Cuban

and

Revolution

random

CIA,

of

not

other

Revolution

following

of

(to

to

which

●

the

Batista

●

the

Autenticos

left-wing

Mao’s

of

all

repressed

a ls o

the

poi n t ed

To ky o

the

tri al s

o ut

a nd

Se co nd

m ay

that

ha ve

they

had

implemented

have

need

used.

to

the

It

is

establish

and

same

sort

of

unsurprising

a

secret

enemies,

security

that

police

having

the

and

incurred

the

saw

it

as

their

direct

a

in

potential

the

Cuban

threat

to

communist

threat

region

investments

their

operations

and

had

wanted

Castro’s

Maa,

which

lost

to

their

power

return

to

with

power

the

and

fall

of

hated

the

regime

the

government

had

lost

its

lucrative

drugs,

gambling

and

trades

US-supported

which

he

g ove rn m e nt ,

the

aft e r

th a t

whi c h

na t io n al

Ca s t ro

to

St a li n ’s

in

few):

lost

a

Th e

the

to

wa y

orde r.

hegemony

as

who

who

aspects

American

it

in

c r im in a l s

traitors

which

–

publi c

ex e c ut i on s

adm i t t ed

wa y,

a

the

region

loyalists

prostitution

to

that

saw

the

war

a nd

the

name

their

and

la ter

Castro

com m e n t at o rs

fo r

a udie nc e s.

tri a ls

la w

approach

corporations

in

l ar g e

felt

s om e

con du c t e d

dictatorships

government

inuence

the

and

responded

of

been

ensured

Cuban

and

conviction”.

violent

would

the

from

by

punis h

of

government,

US

●

of

parties

also

now

had

on

the

immediate

Castro

moral

executions

such

wer e

wr ong

years,

challenge

the

the

the

of

Castro

executions

criminals

chaos

cri ticize d

C as tr o

the

other

hatred

●

●

of

to

col l a p s e

hardline

implacable

●

in

a nd

thes e

he l d

following

apparatus

pursue

in

declaring:

but

disorder

l ik ened

f r o nt

Althoug h

new

Both

torturers

by

Thus,

France

ca s e s

likene d

World

the

public

1930s

trials

prevented

98

been

the

Nuremberg

Over

and

justice.

of

of

and

government

government,

liberation

high-pro l e

however,

been

trials

new

been

centred

political

complaining

trials

the

of

held.

However,

these

years

members

China.

trials

most

the

had

precepts,

into

early

former

banning

trials

were

as

punishment

descend

dispense

of

the

the

legal

televised

changes

Russia,

justied

public:

would

from

sudden

in

The

Cuban

they

not

they

the

never

Batista.

silent

upon

the

were

over

in

towards

mistakes

over

why

public

did

that

been

Castro

based

that

outcry

had

rule

particular,

victory

asking

countries

justice

to

in

admitted

the

Castro’s

harshness

elections

international

henchmen

of

his

and,

promised

aftermath

the

style,

regime,

the

Guevara

to

criticisms

dictatorial

feared

governments

the

citizens.

impact

of

of

other

Castro’s

Latin

American

example

on

their

countries,

own

C H A P T E R

From

1968,

groups

of

growing

during

The

of

ties

the

need

of

for

people

for

regime

One

by

frequently

meant

the

a

plan

Project)

a

to

if

of

many

within

Project):

later,

in

other

the

rst

the

PCC

it

and

was

1990s,

d o m E s T i C

from

against

it

P o l i C i E s

the

emerged

the

(of

all

the

gave

to

turn

to

transfer

the

classes)

them

the

reduce

made

permission

against

dilute

did

free

after

social

even

Referring

to

USA

as

escoria

them

as

opposition

to

his

“exoduses”.

to

regime

had

subjugate

this

the

he

and

was

coups

and

threats

had

Eisenhower

military

to.

for

Although

impossible

Castro

Cubans

repression

was

from

been

the

promised

to

sure

in

the

Cuba

needed

that

by

in

reliance

him

to

coup

He

1959)

(also

any

freer

to

would

future.

(in

far

a

on

Castro

order

foiled

Mongoose

power

a

and

there

near

already

its

populace.

narrowly

had

Operation

Castro

was

managed

against

of

leave

Cuba.

Cubans

wished

Batista’s

1959,

to

in

occasion,

these

implement

US

and,

countries

they

attempted

remove

full-scale

On

Republic

President

and

years

out

degree

US-sponsored

to

two

However,

August

Dominican

correct:

measures

intimidation

spoken

in

Union;

nevertheless

criticism

that

example,

the

leave

Cuba”.

emerged

Varela

malcontents

encouraging

and

“new

the

allowing

major

also

the

C A s T R o ’ s

Period.

leave.

Castro

brutality

the

to

and

traitors,

to

as

Soviet

allowing

over

Cubans

(such

repressive

decision

(scum)

opposition

the

between

revolution,

the

with

Special

option

the

internal

intellectuals

2 . 3 :

police

had

society

survive.

For

organized

be

was,

many

of

known

as

by

more

course,

authorized

means

in

personally

the

the

necessary,

CIA

Cuban

short

of

invasion.

plans relied on terrorist tactics such as the indiscriminate

Operation Mongoose (The Cuban Project)

bombing of targets (both civilian and military ). From In early 1960, President Eisenhower authorized a budget the 1960s until the 21st century, CIA agents or former of US$1.3 million for the CIA to remove Castro from power. agents (such as Luis Posada Carriles) conducted terrorist (Par t of this campaign featured in the best-selling 2012 campaigns against Castro’s government and people, console game, Call Of Duty: Black Ops, earning strong including blowing up a civilian airliner (October 1976) and condemnation from the Cuban government.) Some of the planting bombs in tourist hotels (September 1997). plots were very simple and relied upon Maa or Cuban exile

assassins inltrating Cuba and murdering Castro with guns

According to the 1975 Church Committee (a US senate

or bombs. However, his notoriously erratic movements

investigation into the activities of the CIA during this

made this very dicult. Some plots played on his love

period), the CIA was involved in at least eight attempts

of scuba diving and involved giving him gifts of poisoned

to kill Fidel Castro between 1960 and 1965. According

wetsuits or having an agent poison his breathing apparatus.

to Fabián Escalante Font, a retired Cuban senior counter-

intelligence ocer, there have been 638 attempts to kill Other CIA plots involved targeting the Cuban economy itself, Castro from 1960 to the present day. in the hope of provoking an uprising against Castro. These

The “Special Period in Time of Peace”,

1989–c. 2000

The

June

divisions

economic

This

led

Peace”,

Cuban

1989

that

crisis

to

Ochoa

could

that

Cuba

thus

unity

again

the

created

escalated

followed

entering

once

in

Affair

have

face

the

what

using

of

intense

Cuba’s

collapse

Castro

his

of

called

charisma

adversity

as

an

divisions

problems

the

the

and

within

had

Soviet

it

Union

“Special

popular

economic

Cuban

not

been

Period

hit

the

(1989–1991).

appeal

crisis

society,

for

in

to

Time

call

of

for

Cuba.

99

2

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

The

USSR

and,

by

extension,

Comecon ,

had

become

the

lynchpins

Comecon of

the

Cuban

economy;

by

1989

approximately

80

per

cent

of

both

The Council for Mutual Economic Cuban

exports

and

imports

came

through

the

USSR.

The

collapse

of

Assistance. the

Soviet

Union

(1989–1991)

therefore

had

an

enormous

impact

on

It was founded in 1949 as a direct Cuba.

The

worst

effects

of

this

collapse

were

felt

in

1990

and

lasted

response to the American Marshall until

around

1996

but,

despite

the

predictions

of

most

non-Cuban

Plan - what Soviet politicians referred to commentators,

Castro’s

Cuba

survived.

Balfour

identies

a

number

of

as “Dollar imperialism”. reasons

for

this:

Dominated by the USSR, the main aim

was to promote mutually-benecial

●

the

●

general

absence

of

an

organized

and

effective

opposition

trade between communist and socialist support

for

Castro

and

the

leadership

(even

in

the

face

of

the

countries. socio-economic

●

the

●

disloyalty

army’s

dissatisfaction

utter

loyalty

to

of

the

early

1990s)

Castro

The Ochoa Aair, 1989 to

Castro

and

the

regime

being

a

punishable

offence.

The Ochoa Aair was possibly the most The

government’s

control

over

the

media

and

the

persistent

sense

of

serious internal threat to the Cuban gratitude

for

the

positive

effects

of

the

revolution

can

also

be

added

to

regime since 1959. A number of senior this

list

(especially

healthcare,

social

justice

until

around

and

education).

The

Cuban

military leaders, including General Arnaldo economy

did

not

fully

recover

2003.

During

this

so-called

Ochoa, were arrested for corruption and “Special

Period”:

drug smuggling. Their trial saw several

of them sentenced to long prison terms

●

Cuban

●

oil

GDP

fell

by

34

per

cent

and Ochoa and three others sentenced imports

dried

up

immediately,

dropping

to

10

per

cent

of

to death. It has been speculated that pre-1990

levels

General Ochoa had been planning a coup.

●

loss

63

●

food

of

piecemeal

food

and

campaign

research

also

designed

gone,

to

the

for

75

per

cent

agricultural

UBPCs)

US

thriving

Despite

to

of

also

had

C u b a ’s

market

1990

from

approximately

the

the

of

work

“Food

scarce

with

the

to

on

USSR)

a

adjust,

( Unidades

–

farms

land)

as

the

into

leading

mid-1990s

currency

of

to

to

recycling

the

campaign

USSR

growth

in

had

accounted

downsized

Producción

Castro

they

A

austerity

(which

were

de

had

already

was

increase

biodiversity

from

a

in

unemployed,

plantations.

subsidies

Básicas

B a l f o u r,

Programme”

nationwide

sugar

to

farmers

funds

State-owned

the

according

mobilization

to

agricultural

By

as

crisis,

1990

mass

Wi t h

industries.

used

came

encouraging

combined

created.

be

black

his

was

cooperatives

were

dollars

October

waste.

of

the

reallocation

economy

tourism-related

In

to

volunteers

began,

limit

(before

imports

dramatically.

There

the

famine

intention

other

and

to

food

responded

the

s u p p l y.

students

fell

fashion.

with

led

Cuba’s

imports

government

launched

the

imports

cent

medical

The

a

of

per

and

Cooperativa;

agreed

were

in

to

allow

the

newly

e c o n o m y.

protestations

to

the

c o n t r a r y,

Castro

was

also

forced

to

Class discussion reintroduce

Why was Cuba so badly aected by

markets

the collapse of the Soviet Union in

ownership

1989–1991?

way

that

Leap

100

of

was

Deng

production

means

capitalist

(banned

to

1986)

allowed

to

Xiaoping

of

China

1958.)

a

and

supplement

rescuing

Forward

elements

since

to

the

were

certain

Liu

state

from

Cuban

degree.

Shaoqui

famine

and

(This

is

allowed

production

the

e c o n o m y.

reintroduced

on

that

Farmers’

private

similar

to

the

private

food

communal

land

followed

the

as

Great

a

C H A P T E R

2 . 3 :

C A s T R o ’ s

d o m E s T i C

P o l i C i E s

The US reaction to the “Special Period”

Throughout

large

of

in

this

Castro’s

aggression

blockade

problems

Time

The

of

US

with

which

‘Special

we

must

the

In

possibility

1990

we

Period

must

in

prepare

he

of

a

US

We

War’.

devise

invasion

“There

prepare.

Time

and

of

said:

may

have

Yet,

plans

in

for

a

be

still

called

the

loomed

other

face

‘Special

forms

the

of

total

all

these

Period

in

Peace’.”

trade

Cuba,

penalties

they

a

for

period,

mind.

to

were

worsening

embargo

but

the

foreign

companies

dissuaded

the

already

prevented

Helms-Burton

from

economic

Act

doing

investing

and

of

US

companies

1996

business

in

Cuba

humanitarian

went

in

for

Cuba,

fear

from

further.

of

dealing

It

which

being

gave

stiff

meant

sued,

that

thus

crisis.

The Helms–Bur ton Act, 1996

This act, ocially called the Cuban Liber ty and Democratic Solidarity (Liber tad)

Act, was brought into force at the height of Cuba’s humanitarian and economic

crisis. According to Balfour, it is “one of the most controversial bills in the history

of the US”. Its main stipulations were sanctions against:

●

any US business that imported products originating from Cuba, even if sourced

through a foreign intermediary

●

any country, institution or business (including the World Bank) that traded

with or extended loans to Cuba

●

any foreign business that used resources previously owned by US

corporations and individuals and that had been nationalized by Cuba.

Castro referred to this act as “that brutal and genocidal Helms Bur ton law”,

claiming that it was “harming the sovereignty of the rest of the world”. However,

he was also quick to point out that it was only serving to increase the growing

global disgust at the USA and that it had not deterred foreign investment in Cuba.

The Act stipulated that the newly intensied embargo would not be lifted until:

●

Castro’s government was replaced by a transitional government (i.e. one

friendlier to US business interests)

●

all nationalized proper ty was returned to its “original owners” (i.e. US

corporations, individuals and the Maa)

●

compensation was paid to US corporations and individuals for their

nationalized proper ty.

This act was an example of the US government attempting to exploit its

position as the world’s only superpower after the collapse of the USSR in

1991. It naturally met with sti resistance from other nations. The European

Union instructed its member nations to ignore the Act (eectively declaring

it illegal in international law) because it violated international free trade laws.

The US government, realizing the limits of its power and the animosity the

Act was generating, eventually agreed to ignore the clauses dealing with

foreign companies or countries. It failed to prevent Cuba from gaining foreign

investments and became a continuing source of resentment for both Cuba and

the global community.

101

2

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

Many

and

By

companies

this

the

2000s

their

Castro’s

in

invest

to

around

of

Cuba,

charm”.

the

160

ban

on

000

to

Cuba

other

currency

Cuba

into

in

the

economy

American

from

foreign

reintegrating

primarily

Cuban

travel

Tourists

much-needed

aim

in

stabilize

country’s

“old-world

bringing

did

helped

early

defying

and

has

tourists

to

soak

world

to

1990s.

year

the

also

helping

industry,

the

each

up

countries

and

the

tourism

since

were

sun,

history

ocked

there,

achieve

community.

The Special Period and industrial production

The

rapid

industrial

oil

modernization

production

imports.

Cuba

of

Cuban

since

had

sold

spend

the

its

surplus

elsewhere

longer

halt

supplied)

around,

invest

of

other

businesses

areas

US

dollar

that

▲

A Camello in Havana, Cuba

it

was

market

that

to

to

that

act

were

the

permitted

as

up,

classes.

to

The

(Chinese

move

up

such

18-wheeler

buses.

foreign

companies

starting

was

in

to

a

legally

number

introduced.

validating

throughout

to

Hundreds

became

removed

currency,

used

after

were

to

dried

partnerships.

taxation

as

USSR,

million

sprang

market

were

jobs

to

no

ground

people

already

black

being

thrived

which

allow

subsidies

already

a

was

the

social

help

business

progressive

was

to

all

than

Soviet

income

oil

of

many

alternatives

law

on

State

and

across

buses’),

the

When

production

and

on

more

collapse

more

adapted

privately

the

and

reliance

generate

order

through

a

country.

after

in

transport

to

industrial

(‘camel

Cuba

sanctioned.

of

to

the

ingenious

changed

in

led

overnight

bicycles

specially

operate

oil

distributed

and

Camellos

Castro

had

unemployment

government

trucks

and

practically

creating

as

in

forthcoming

transportation

a

agriculture,

1960s

the

The

the

fact

black

1990.

The Special Period and agriculture

The

loss

ways.

famine

cattle

of

oil

There

that

as

loss

of

the

market

As

as

and

urban

Cuban

a

desperate

private

lack

of

to

teach

countryside

to

for

had

help

In

killing

grow

and

plots

for

these

food.

eating

to

was

Cuban

change

machinery,

as

experts

sustainable

turned

on

in

almost

of

of

a

Cuba’s

were

With

times

their

(at

of

Cuba

Students

trade

the

the

pesticides

essential

to

four

crops.

A

vegetable

foreign

all

to

reintroduced.

agriculture.

into

number

plantations

stocks

an

a

leading

sugar

came

compulsory.

depended

sector

production,

state-owned

derivatives

successfully

made

of

had

farm

of

food

1992,

permaculture

had

in

market

oil

techniques

jobs

agricultural

ownership

Soviet

petrol

were

government

whose

people

plantations

which

Australian

the

decline

animals.

many

–

affected

massive

zoo

and

rooftops

Cubans

102

a

guaranteed

fertilizers

declined.

aid

as

price),

well

and

saw

well

reorganized

imports

was

ingredient

to

number

beds

and

were

–

distribute

and

of

the

unemployed

relocated

to

the

C H A P T E R

The

effects

●

The

●

Due

of

these

impending

to

more

Farmers

●

The

as

student

now

the

found

USSR

of

a

alleviated

animals,

more

the

to

Cuban

preference

to

sit

some

diet

for

of

on

P o l i C i E s

extent.

shifted

high

away

meat

from

the

consumption

to

educational

surplus

eager

crops

to

abandoned

for

help,

entire

private

proved

prot.

to

harvests

be

to

rot

exams.

global

As

for

sell

they

tobacco,

a

supplied.

demand

to

generally

when

their

exports

had

allowed

while

useful

compete

high

the

was

volunteers,

traditional

also

result

once

entirely

to

d o m E s T i C

varied.

American

returned

having

that

of

C A s T R o ’ s

diet.

were

than

they

Cuba’s

Latin

vegan

●

less

famine

shortages

traditional

a

measures

2 . 3 :

the

their

citrus

fruits,

market

nickel

without

Cubans

sought

biotechnology

improvements

the

out

–

introduced

a

and

sugar

price

new

direct

after

were

protection

markets,

they

long-term

the

revolution.

The Special Period and society

According

Journal,

not

of

to

the

entirely

1959

a

the

(coupled

with

decrease

a

in

August

While

use

from

of

meat

1994,

there

at

the

in

was

a

spontaneous

demonstration

involvement

of

demonstration

its

kind

exodus

since

Florida

Balfour

to

than

start

the

the

poor

developing

universal

protect

construct.

against

the

life

that,

in

and

the

to

Castro

liberalize

shift

Faced

the

with

instituted

the

there

in

35

the

as

it

a

signicant

conjunction

with

there

was

population-wide

against

was

had

a

been

was

It

people

journey

poverty

some

way,

the

led

the

genuinely

Either

1959.

cutbacks

a

far

to

country

at

world.

constants

the

bloc

the

rst

to

the

protest

third

boarding

across

of

major

rafts

the

society

chaos

reforms

of

–

and

Straits

of

both

that

in

he

had

misery

an

the

care

as

and

a

helped

for

the

warning

unrestricted

Soviet-style

while

public

determined

used

to

and

protection

was

and

being

closer

collapse

of

health

Castro

was

economy

economic

time

Universal

economic

global

subsidies

level

this

and

countries

Cuban

food

greater

post-revolution

the

vegetables

to

person.

USA.

000

revolution

shortage,

a

Havana

perilous

developed

eastern

and

were

USA.

other

the

fuel

per

the

of

regime

enjoyed

mid-1990s,

former

model.

of

the

whether

from

district

despite

any

of

led

In

Medical

poverty-related

eating

diabetes.

whether

the

to

foods)

British

population

the

other

demonstration

unclear

the

Cuban

since

and

health

estimated

remained

integrity

the

is

or

in

Cuba

almost

demands

economies,

fully

in

By

other

capitalist

to

out

poor

public

undertake

new

world

to

in

a

and

result

agents

an

the

time

kilograms

Batista’s

with

to

education

to

poor

1965,

of

rst

general

Malecón

end

boats

points

spending,

the

the

since

ramshackle

in

well-respected

on

processed

a

5.5

It

anti-Castro

the

consumption

to

as

of

time.

the

diseases

bicycles

reduction

in

Period

malnutrition

access

improvement

Cuba

for

facing

reduced

weight

gripping

published

Special

cardiovascular

noticeable

In

the

were

move

increased

average

study

of

negative.

Cubans

illnesses,

the

2013

effects

being

socialist

careful

not

economy.

103

2

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

Nevertheless,

Those

who

relatives

did

not.

in

rates

the

of

the

For

example,

the

had

USA)

many

the

to

US

ratio

mortality

shortages

nature

dollars

enjoyed

Cubans,

highest

infant

food

egalitarian

access

and

of

in

a

the

Cuban

distinct

lack

of

was

from

advantage

per

world)

society

example,

continued

doctors

the

the

of

(for

over

those

achievements

capita

were

and

small

consumer

still

eroded.

generous

one

who

of

Cuba

of

the

comfort

(for

lowest

compared

to

goods.

The Special Period and politics

Despite

and

their

still

neighbour

ensure

situation,

saw

him

to

the

the

(if

not

The

continued

of

return

for

to

Castro’s

before

the

Special

the

use

the

of

US

among

However,

was

for

a

and

of

these

wishes.

the

party

and

To

appease

pushed

his

the

and

over

Cuban

Bolshevik

Revolution

the

ideologies

the

cornerstones

There

were,

would

Soviet

much

of

of

Union

Latin

economic

being

from

less

in

their

political

the

and

Cuban

in

to

those

to

countries).

and

the

entrench

threat

support

remember

the

a

time

economic

change.

Castro

from

helped

crisis

Demands

began

to

conservative

of

for

accede

elements

1917

to

the

USA

other

ideological

to

claim

change

and

in

full

the

upon

of

justice

with

about

the

Latin

public

and

(despite

dictatorial

rhetoric

highlighting

resurgence

who

that

comparisons

freedoms

other

still

was

Centre

for

that

American

support

for

egalitarianism

its

as

leading

orthodoxy.

Cuba

leadership

on

the

unwilling

to

allow

of

America,

Study

reforms

it

was

Cuban

of

or

this

not

Cuban

were

for

moved

against

be

an

relations

punishment

regimes

would

the

too

investigated

members

Although

clear:

Cuban

perestroika

the

1996

dictators

the

of

examined

suggested

March

and

that

effects

centre

had

In

the

Castro

The

centres.

by

was

a

of

bloc,

research

used

a

members

suggesting

Revolution.

systems.

message

to

and

able

from

calling

Cuba.

the

not

saw

also

countries,

of

was

example

eastern

respected

service

was

limits

political

could

Castro

American

Cuba

to

party

removed,

away

October

the

the

positions

opponents,

its

With

growing

leadership,

also

Guevara,

reform

than

period

of

bully

needed

opposition

were

moving

the

American

and

the

harsh

of

and

political

internationally

with

Che

the

Castro

There

course,

tolerate.

of

reform

This

were

these

served

also

Latin

generation,

things

met

of

who

behind

aggressive

position

Cuba’s

to

Batista

their

military.

charisma)

instead.

Cubans

This

his

of

muscle

younger

that

of

regimes

those

remained

against

people

of

reform

Revolution,

nationalism

the

days”

sign

the

for

Cuba.

consistency

of

the

elements

loudly

position

control

economic

these

too

population

strength

economic

old

to

some

of

US-supported

“bad

Period

Cuban

The

political

within

104

the

bastion

support

regime

1959.

a

north.

popular

neighbours

a

as

was

their

abandoning

C H A P T E R

2 . 3 :

C A s T R o ’ s

d o m E s T i C

P o l i C i E s

Luis Posada Carriles (aka Bambi)

Cuban-born Posada (b. 1928) knew Castro while they were both university

students. Following the revolution, Posada was involved with anti-Castro groups

before being arrested. On his release from prison, he ed to the USA from

where he helped the CIA to plan the ill-fated Bay of Pigs Invasion in April 1961.

Determined to over throw Castro, he was trained in terrorism methods by the CIA

and, since 1964, he has been involved in many terrorist attacks against Cuba

or Cuban interests in Latin America (including the 1976 bombing of Cubana

Flight 455, which killed 73 civilians). Throughout his career, Posada has been

suppor ted by the CIA and the US-based right-wing Cuban exile group, the Cuban

American National Foundation (which itself has close links to the CIA). Posada

currently lives in Miami and is treated as a hero by many members of the hardline

Cuban exile community there.

The end of the Special Period

By

mid-1996

attack

and

by

the

Raúl

some

of

enterprises

the

(for

were

increased

After

1996

changes

(no

reforms

and

the

was

return

a

of

the

doubt

were

example,

there

and

changes

Castro

the

cost

Special

with

being

to

a

the

were

effort

more

to

coming

support

Taxes

of

on

family-run

self-employment

concerted

Cuba

full

reversed.

paladares,

of

Period

the

under

brother)

some

private

restaurants)

licences

reverse

centralized

his

some

also

of

went

the

up.

economic

economy.

Castro’s Cuba, 1996 to 2008

Around

end

to

its

as

this

the

align

itself

economic

within

hotels

The

at

mor e

Posada

January

arranging

only

the

we r e

1998

tacit

and

been

the

of

his

of

300

With

referred

s er i es

wor k

US A .

Th e

Th e

S pa in

M a r ía

came

A z na r

E u ro pe a n

t o u ri sm

bo m bi ng s

and

a g ai n st

Cuba n -bor n

11

an

t ie d

me as u re s

i n du s t ry

wou n de d

to

s ou g h t

U n io n

l ibe ra l iz a t i on

C uba n

te rr or is t

touri st

a

wit h

J os é

inc r ea s ed

of

of

of

al so

tou r is t

ot h e r s.

for m e r- CI A

ag e nt ,

t he

did

of

Pa ul

the

C ub an

of

the

modell e d .

public

a chi e ve d

Jo hn

It

no t

w as

a

to

ma j or

vi s it

Ca thol ic

br a nd

R us si a n

not

r e fr ai n

ma s s e s .

wa s

II

As

an

on

the

t h e re

C uba

did

it

th e

not

was

bu t

g re a t e r

t he

c l ai m ed

vi si t ,

v is it ,

a

sa me

to

h owe ve r,

d u ri n g

th e

by

n ot

al so

h ol d

wa s

r eg i m e

Po pe ’s

co u p

s i gn i  ed

pr o- Ca s tro

cri ti c iz i n g

a nd

for

wh ic h

en t i re l y

of

re l at i on s

Th is

s oc i a li sm

r e su l t

ne g otia te d

Ch u r c h

f or m

fro m

a

of

pu bl ic

Cu ba.

one

re l ea s e

t ol er a n c e

of

activity.

the

Colonel

a

the

sup p o r t

prisoners

Church

the

to

economy.

as

C a s tr o

Pop e

that

Pope

four

wi th

C uba

Ita l i a n- C a na dia n

anti-religiousness

have

the

to

coop er a tio n

g ov er nme n t

Carri l e s .

for

recognition

e co nomi c

cl o s e ly

time ,

an

bombings

Luis

and

this

killed

the

ne o l i b e ra l

assista nce

politics

suffered

In

time,

new

December

Hugo

to

Castro

“Venezuela

happiness

1998

Chávez,

is

as

his

of

real

gained

mentor

travelling

and

Venezuelan

Castro

and

towards

social

the

justice

election

another

victory

ally

in

of

the

Lieutenant

region.

Chávez

claimed:

same

and

sea

as

the

Cuban

people,

a

sea

of

peace.”

105

2

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

Venezuelan

and,

by

oil

2004,

was

the

trade

agreement.

After

George

relations

was

of

part

of

terrorist

ght

for

“Axis

of

other

11 000

–

a

US

to

Bush

(namely,

to

brace

the

a

–

in

2000,

the

by

for

pr i c es

be n e c i a l

US–Cuban

in

2002

that

the

considering

and,

that

USA

the

another

Project,

that

government

intended

invasion

Suspicion

reform

had

and

Cuba

accused

prolonged

implication,

country.

political

Cuban

pre fer e n t ia l

countries

itself

Varela

for

at

mut ua l ly

declared

ironic

Cuba

destabilize

The

Cu ba

president

worse.

petition

economics.

to

si gn e d

somewhat

movement,

on

s ol d

ha d

against

began

attempt

signatures

free-market

the

Evil”

terrorism

pro-democracy

Class discussion

became

turn

Cuba

be i ng

natio ns

campaign

against).

some

Bush

a

the

sponsoring

CIA

or

W

took

soon

tw o

to

attempt

fell

on

a

collected

increased

responded

with

Think back to the beginning of the Castro

a

counter-petition

calling

for

the

socialist

nature

of

the

Cuban

section. How accurate was Castro when he

constitution

to

be

made

a

permanent

feature.

This

petition

gathered

claimed that they had made mistakes in

over

8

million

votes

(about

99

per

cent

of

the

Cuban

voting

public).

In

the early days of the Cuban Revolution?

March

2003,

around

75

members

of

the

Varela

Project

were

arrested

Justify you answers with reference to for

taking

money

from

foreign

agencies

for

political

purposes,

many

of

specic examples. them

being

given

Additionally,

US’s

Latin

with

Latin

L TA

the

dreaded

and

1

and

d ecla r ed ,

to

(for

–

a

the

w av e

trying

of

p o l icie s

comm uni s t

brutally

a nd

to

the

e xa mpl e,

w or l d

pol icie s

p r e ve nt

for

g ro wi ng

C uba

e st a bli sh m en t

I ra n

“P ink

tha t

wa s

s u pp or t

and

le ft-wi ng

s o - ca l le d

soci a l

the

i ncre a se d

co untr ie s

199 8

America

economic

led

nations

From

sentences.

C a s tr o

Thi s

American

other

Africa).

Research and communication skills

as

bullying.

long

tha t

fr om

e le c t or a l

Th e

s e en

the

t r a de

as

US A

term

had

e m er g in g .

swe pt

“pi nk ”

r e fe r s

m od er a t e

be e n

Wi thi n

the

Sou t h

v ic t o ri e s

m or e

of

ot h e r

l in k s

p os t -a pa r t h ei d

Ti de ”.

w er e

of

t ir e d

fr om

so

six

to

th an

de sp er a t e ly

ye a rs

of

Construct a detailed essay plan for Chávez’s

electoral

v i cto r y

(a cco rdi ng

to

the

BBC

in

2 005 ),

m or e

one of the exam-style questions listed than

three

quarte r s

of

the

La ti n

Ame ri c a n

po pula t i on

we re

li vi n g

at the end of this chapter. under

2

democratica l l y

Verbally explain how you intend to

construct your essay, explaining

which points of information belong in

each paragraph and why.

4

le ft-wi ng

g ove rn m en t s .

Many

of

t h e ir

Swap essay plans with your par tner. leaders

3

e l ecte d

had

Ironically,

a

domino

had

in

their

effect

pushed

these

expre s s l y

views

in

Castro

to

the

cited

fear

F ide l

that

L a ti n

i nto

C as tr o

C as tro ’s

Ame ri ca ,

a dop ti ng

an d

195 9

the

Cu ba

vi c t or y

USA

had

co m mu ni s m

as

t h e ir

wou l d

e na c t e d

and

e x ampl es .

p re c i pi t at e

po li c ie s

h e lpe d

to

that

s pr ea d

co ntinent.

Your par tner should ask questions

and state where they struggle to

Castro’s legacy

follow your ideas. In

5

Make notes on how to improve your

essay plan.

his

as

6

February

down

as

long

a

2008,

leader

of

period

result,

the

in

after

a

Cuba,

power,

world

long

illness,

handing

Castro

itself.

His

Fidel

power

had

to

Castro

his

succeeded

impact

on

the

eventually

brother

in

Raúl.

changing

Cold

War

was

stepped

During

Cuba

and,

entirely

Spend ve to ten minutes perfecting

disproportionate

to

the

size

of

his

nation.

The

fact

that

he

outlasted

your essay plan.

the

7

Soviet

Union

is

testament

Write the essay within 45 minutes. resilience

106

of

his

nation.

to

both

his

personal

qualities

and

to

the

Exm-stle qestions

Answer

the

applicable,

1

“Successful

power

by

leader,

2

To

two

rise

what

and

Discuss

of

and

questions

extent

was

the

of

the

the

success

on

this

an

Cuba

and,

where

the

from

to

maintenance

one

of

authoritarian

statement?

religious

chosen

of

for

reference

with

to

choice.

essential

agree

each

reference

your

With

impact

states,

groups

a

of

different

authoritarian

the

policies

region.

leader

due

to

media?

contrast

power

you

of

were

leaders.”

do

with

state

policies

contrast

extent

to

different

5

economic

authoritarian

control

Compare

the

essay

authoritarian

authoritarian

what

their

4

to

Compare

of

3

following

another

the

two

use

of

propaganda

authoritarian

and

leaders,

the

each

media

chosen

in

from

a

region.

the

importance

authoritarian

leader’s

of

the

use

of

maintenance

force

of

in

consolidating

an

power.

107

C onstctin te ess

Question

With

reference

different

to

region,

two

or

discuss

more

their

authoritarian

role

in

rulers,

helping

their

each

party

chosen

to

gain

from

a

power.

Analysis

Focus

45

on

answering

minutes

aspects

of

per

your

descending

convoluted

and

convey

fully

To

●

become

useful

on

P

your

good

in

in

a

idea

the

try

to

if

you

Paper

to

essay,

use:

sound

see

you

do

2

exam

address

and

not

clever.

through

use

the

then

use

This

this

phrases

=

E

you

most

other

have

signicant

aspects

in

or

is

ploy.

“long

words”

simply

You

language

and

showing

will

you

struggle

have

to

not

the

books

journal

extended

essay)

complex

teacher’s

to

your

vocabulary,

articles

academic

terms

and

styles

it

(e.g.,

of

phrases

is

best

History

writing

in

your

to

prepare

Today)

(this

is

essays

by:

to

also

and

acting

feedback.

paragraphs

–

and

complex

to

using

Point

=

Evidence

=

carefully:

follow

topic

is

to

write

well-structured

paragraphs,

PEEL:

sentence

where

you

briey

state

the

point

you

=

–

develop

the

point,

providing

evidence

to

support

argument

Explanation

what

L

more

making

your

E

with

exposure

mnemonic

are

●

to

usually

history

your

good

●

a

earlier

language

familiar

for

Structure

●

is

signicance.

message

practising

●

question:

it

understood.

increase

a

the

examiners

reading

●

of

phrases

your

the

so

answer

order

Understand

off

essay,

the

–

evaluate

question

Linkage

–

a

is

the

importance

of

this

point

in

terms

of

asking

concluding

line

relating

your

argument

Putsch

(Novemb er

back

to

the

question

Sample answer

Adolf

to

Hitler’s

Fidel

attacks

(July

speeches

the

108

1924

Castro’s

that

regime

speech

1953).

had

they

at

Octob er

Both

no

had

his

1953

trial

for

speech

leaders

hint

of

an

tried

to

lead

were

on

apology.

a

the

during

coup

Munich

his

trial

trial

for

Instead,

against.

for

the

attempting

they

b oth

Moncada

treason

1923)

and

yet

challenged

b oth

the

was

similar

Bayamo

delivered

legitimacy

of

S K I L L S

There

are

example,

who

clear

Hitler

would

echoed

speeches

will

be

The

to

for

by

trial

to

change

them

later

In

rise

speeches

the

to

Hitler

to

of

the

b eing

breed

of

not

to

line

level,

to

to

to

“Goddess

will

pass

the

a

Castro’s.

speech

“History

worthy

of

the

Castro’s

sub scrib e

the

results

relatively

the

of

than

of

of

judgment

divine

that

of

History”

us.”

on

1953

Both

the

their

power)

E S S a y

For

Octob er

absolve

b elief

b oth

obscure

German

audience.

simply

National

with

outspoken

energized

speeches

people

Similarly,

many

politically

rather

tone

T h E

than

person

actions

the

judges

overthrow.

with

one

and

reference

guilty.

some

question,

leader

means,

nor

cases

power

the

Castro

the

and

were,

gave

were

tried

prominence

from

are

on

international

new

any

popularity

they

an

the

a

not

Castro

(akin,

have

of

to

went

with

content

concluding

judges

and

the

C O N S T r u C T I N g

contenting

even

of

youth

German

brought

articulate

critics

Cuban

similar.

S ocialist

and

his

were

speech

Batista’s

who

themselves

were

with

in

1952

pressing

verbal

Batista.

both

successes

speeches

their

of

neither

gain

of

through

condemnation

speeches.

of

Castro

face

power

the

Munich

in

speech

the

Hitler

terms

attention

the

that

they

catapulted

1953,

However,

in

1924

eponymous

Both

higher

speech

co-defendants

its

regime

in

his

b elief

a

the

Party

the

Octob er

coup

the

signicantly

1924

him

by

Hitler’s

his

in

speech.

judged

Worker’s

and

sentiment

the

appointed

More

him

reveal

delivering

of

concluded

nd

this

echoes

S E C T I O N :

trials

spread

therefore,

their

built

at

their

trials.

by

their

trial

main

rose

to

helped

the

this

reasons

for

their

in

to

the

both

but

it

later

after

public

they

Hitler

would

years.

gained

and

be

their

trials

prominence,

following

recognition

way,

speeches

immediately

them

message

on

In

power

bring

Arguably,

as

Castro

inaccurate

and

which

a

result

were

to

their

of

helped

claim

these

helped

the

in

that

these

success.

Examiner comments

Although

student

is

not

by

a

the

The

information

begun

problem

end

third

Batista”)

confuse

the

the

has

of

too

the

just

long

of

long

reader.

of

him

The

the

nal

put

waste

you

or

make

third

best

to

here

the

to

is

it

the

use

short,

a

interesting,

asked.

relevant

to

This

the

in

the

itself

question

essay.

(“Similarly,

much

understand,

and

being

directly

of

paragraph

too

accurate

question

section

includes

paragraph

and

this

is

precious

trial

to

at

had

the

with

information,

simple

better

coup

not

concludes

evaluate

exam

similar

it

was

his…

which

sentences.

way

of

To

writing

of

can

make

this

in

effect.

of

not

of

Previously,

Batista’s

enough.

the

coup.

Castro’s

politically

he

had

Their

speech

energized

been

verbal

and

Cuban

words.

with

its

could

time

critics

forefront

deeds,

good,

a

outspoken

Batista’s

wanted

question

Although

is

his

his

who

It

many

condemnation

youth

the

and

easier

at

among

actions

as

from

been:

speech

one

provided

deviate

paragraph

sentence

is

have

Castro’s

so

the

information

might

to

an

effort

importance

have

been

unnecessary

to

in

done

link

light

the

of

more

point

the

to

question.

concisely.

Do

not

repetition.

109

3

C h i n a

–

M a o

Te glbl ctext

For

more

19th

nations

world.

China

of

than

century,

the

and

By

was

the

earth.

by

with

the

the

thousand

the

Middle

This

in

avoided

largely

tradition,

was

condence

but

two

China

1840s

isolated

in

this

was

them

a

foreign

result

other

outside

had

that

of

in

of

culture,

to

of

the

external

inuence

powers

in

had

China

and

a

would

expose

traditional

political

in

which

China

Britain,

These

incursions

and

wanted

for

right

and

to

their

Opium

to

Wars

defeated

open

Germany,

set

up

Christian

operate

in

and

Korea

considerable

in

China

as

a

Japan

War

from

role

during

the

1940s.

culminated

for

treaties”,

which

in

a

series

allowed

of

foreign

resources control

of

China’s

import

and

export

successful

weaknesses

industrially

to

a

power

Asia,

Sino-Japanese

Taiwan

play

in

1868.

in

Shanghai

had

large

foreign-controlled

China’s Russia

claimed

Manchuria

in

1900;

system.

British

forced

France,

militarily

they

the

was

the

for

the

of

change

France

with

seizing

struggles

districts.

Starting

in

would

and

trade. incursions

China

1930s

power

restoration

nations.

thirst

their

dominant

Meiji

Japan

merchants and

the

1894–1895,

“unequal These

as

the

defeated

China.

centre

sense

and

beginning

of

the

the

emerging

the

with

believed

at

independence

encroachment

until

from

Chinese

Kingdom

instilled

their

years,

contact

up

Chinese

to

and

the

In

to

addition,

trade

were

for

have

the

USA

This

freely

and

acquisition

trade

in

the

than

Japan

was

seized

regard

China.

Great

powers

bases

missionaries

with

forces,

West.

Russia

advanced

commercial

China.

1898,

(1839–1842),

had

to

announced

foreign

would

within

of

Shandong

50

Indo-China

soon

Chinese

that

China’s

of

the

followed.

door

USA

and

By

ports”

1890s.

The

1900

in

could

German

mining

were

In

policy”

inuence

borders.

building

“treaty

the

“open

spheres

mean

railroad

its

by

rights

more

in

foreign

possession.

Timeline

Collapse of the ruling Qing Dynasty

1911

Mao Zedong (毛泽东)

1921

becomes one of the founders of the

Communist Par ty of China (CCP) Formation of the First United Front 1924 between the CCP and GMD

1927

Japanese occupation of China

Shanghai Massacre – the ‘White Terror ’

1937

Japan defeated at the end of 1945 Second World War

Civil War between the CCP and 1946–1949 the Nationalists

Communist victory and Mao declares 1949 the People’s Republic of China (PRC)

110

C H A P T E R

A Great Terror unfolds, the ‘Campaign to

3 . 1 :

M A o ’ s

R i s E

T o

P o w E R

19 4 9

1950

Suppress Counter-Revolutionaries’ The rst Five-Year Plan 1952 Anti-religion campaigns begin Political parties other then the CCP banned

China enters the Korean War

1956

Collectivization began

1957

The Hundred Flowers campaign

The Great Leap Forward (the second 1958 Five-Year Plan)

The Soviets denounce Mao’s Great Leap 1958–19 61 Forward and the famine that ensues

Mao launches the Great Proletarian 1966 Cultural Revolution

PRC replaced Taiwan in the United 1971 Nations

1976

Mao dies

▲

Henri Meyer for Le Petit Journal, 16 January, 1898

111

3.1

Mao’s rise to power 1949

Cceptul uderstdg

Key questions

➔

What were the political, military, economic and social conditions that helped

Mao come to power?

➔

How impor tant was Mao’s leadership in the victory of the Chinese Communist

Par ty in 1949?

Key concepts

➔

Causes

➔

Perspectives

Te estblsmet f te Peple’s Republc, 1949

On

1

October

Communist

palace

in

1949

Party

Beijing

establishment

marked

the

after

two

with

the

Mao

was

in

1976.

leader

of

In

of

who

in

▲

Mao Zedong, founder of the People’s

Republic of China

once

112

a

of

ba l c on y

as

of

the

of

P ek in g )

Re pub li c

Chine s e

wa r.

early

a

to

of

wa s

C hi n e se

t he

to

ol d

i mp er i al

pr oc l a im

Ch i na

com m un i st s

Chin a

of

in

China.

(P RC ).

over

bra c e d

China

home.

national

have

Millions

20th

as

of

a

were

fo r

a

th e

T hi s

t he i r

for m a l

m om e n t

e ne m ie s

dr a m a t i c

br ea k

They

rule,

pride.

still

By

used

or

investigated

he

own

rule.

oppressor

his

his

state

lost

a

by

economic,

result

purges

story.

been

was

a

as

of

during

this

the

in

The

controversial

leader

portrait

the

of

in

is

and

in

pride

China

Mao

is

often

communism

extent

China

of

as

visionary.

Mao

West,

of

China

and

liberator

the

brand

of

as

known

guerrilla

contrast,

totalitarian

liberator

death

political,

were

of

have

Mao

his

the

lives

display

view

his

1966–1976.

talented

today

who

of

of

until

single-party

victims

century

his

a

China

transformed

Revolution

the

of

established

who

decades

despot

a

he

Republic

policies

those

establish

Mao

you

His

countries

their

as

People’s

time,

Cultural

restored

consider

as

gures

the

(Maoism)

that

well

the

regarded

the

structure

as

people

place

ci vi l

means.

neighbouring

Many

the

Cha ir m an

on

kno wn

P e opl e ’s

of

of

of

During

major

Mao.

t he

decades

social

Few

s tood

past.

upheaval,

climax

Ze d ong ,

( f o r m e rl y

victor y

authoritarian

and

of

Ma o

( C C P ),

to

which

worthy

of

you

debate

C H A P T E R

3 . 1 :

M A o ’ s

R i s E

T o

P o w E R

19 4 9

The Chinese language (to

Russia

1860)

There are two commonly used systems for

transcribing Mandarin into Western text: Manchuria

the older Wade-Giles system and the more

(Dongbei)

recent Pinyin. Pinyin provides a more

simplied version of how words should Mongolia

be pronounced and is used throughout

Vladivostok

this chapter. Thus it will be Mao Zedong

not Mao Tse-tung, and Guomindang, not

Korea

Kuomintang. However, Chiang Kai-shek (to

Japan

Beijing

is the exception and is most commonly

1905) Port Arthur

Weihaiwei

Kiachow

known by the Wade-Giles term, and not by

Jiang Jieshi as it appears in Pinyin.

(Jiaozhou)

French

British

China Russian

Meiji Restoration

Japanese Nanjing

(Nanking)

German

In Japan the Meiji Restoration of 1868

Shanghai

Italian

marked the accession of a new emperor,

Meiji, and the beginning of Japanese Liuqiu

(to

Japan

modernization. Enormous changes were

1879)

Fuzhou

made to Japan’s system of government and

Amoy

armed forces and the country embarked

(Xiamen)

(to

Japan

1895)

Canton

on a programme of industrialization. Many

educated Chinese saw Japan as a model

Pescadores

Kowloon

(to

Guangzhouwan

French

Japan

that China should emulate.

1895)

Indo-China N

Philippines

Class discussion 0

500

km

Siam

A key aim of the rebellions of the late

19th century was to achieve “a revolution ▲

The areas of China controlled by foreign powers during the 19th century

against the world to join the world”. What

do you think this meant? Does this phrase

Cdts  C befre 1911 have any resonance today?

Until

was

the

the

knew

Chinese

the

in

the

century

(Manchu)

imperial

the

crushed

a

on

way

of

based

and

the

Beijing,

were

a

to

Taiping

During

50

in

The

and

China

foreign

000-strong

accept

with

and

and

of

the

Qing

the

country.

(1850–1864)

the

powers

and

the

ruling

erupted

the

power

aristocracy.

during

the

power.

of

Confucius,

the

control

latter,

heart

country,

against

keep

heaven”,

his

people

bottom,

emperor

everyone

of

to

sage”

Rebellion

the

the

making

rebellions

struggled

at

clans,

The

which

threats

feudal

resentment

the

or

the

ruling

imperialists

converts.

sending

a

at

in

“great

and

was

nation.

“mandate

were

the

class,

large-scale

(1898–1900).

by

of

China

peasant

the

values

harmony

people’s

of

hierarchy

from

opposition

philosophy

foreign

series

strict

any

landlords,

of

Christian

a

conservative

derived

Confucian

the

the

in

very

building

rebellions

Boxers

of

rule

complaint.

presence

A

a

down

the

of

the

provoked

Rebellion

the

top

to

put

without

dynasty.

missionaries

to

Based

serious

Boxer

the

population,

rulers,

most

at

was

millennia,

hands

increasing

19th

The

the

China

right

him

were

order

of

His

two

society.

social

wealth

The

than

values

majority

ruler

place.

permitted

more

these

century,

supreme

their

which

For

19th

Boxers

and

murdered

eventually

international

relief

force.

113

3

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

They

imposed

a

ne

of

$330

million

on

China,

which

fuelled

the

The Dowager Empress Cixi national

sense

of

bitterness

against

foreign

subjugation.

(慈禧太后) 1835–1908 Pressure

mounted

on

the

ruling

emperor,

Guang

Xu

( 光绪帝),

solution

lay

in

to

Cixi, who eectively controlled the Chinese act.

His

advisers

persuaded

him

that

the

reform

government for 47 years, from 1861 until and

modernization.

What

followed

was

the

implementation

of

a

her death, was a conservative, resistant to “Hundred

Days

of

Reform”,

a

series

of

initiatives

to

modernize

the

reform and western ideas. Although Cixi did bureaucracy,

the

armed

forces,

and

the

transport

system.

However,

eventually follow the blueprint of the “Hundred the

powerful

Dowager

Empress

Cixi

( 慈禧太后),

who

became

de

facto

Days of Reform”, many historians suggest that ruler

in

1861

after

a

ruthless

coup,

halted

this

reforming

phase.

she did too little too late to save the empire

from collapse. Before her death she named

the infant Puyi – who would become the last

emperor of China – as her successor.

The

poverty

China.

arable

land

natural

TOK discussion

of

the

Peasants

covered

disasters

According

to

in

440

1712

hunger

to

masses

made

was

up

only

such

as

estimates,

million

was

another

almost

10

per

80

cent

ooding

China’s

by

exacerbated

cent

of

the

made

it

the

Famine

custom

of

of

growing

the

for

rose

of

and

120

more

dividing

in

but

recurring

peasants

from

became

unrest

population,

country

hard

population

1900.

by

cause

per

to

survive.

million

frequent

land

among

and

all

Or thodox biographers blame Empress Cixi for

the

sons

of

a

family.

Landlords

and

prosperous

peasants

constituted

weakening the empire. They focus on her role

only

10

per

cent

of

the

rural

population

but

they

owned

70

per

cent

in encouraging the failed Boxer Rebellion, her

of

the

to

pay

land.

Peasants

were

often

plagued

with

debt

because

they

had

role in halting reform and her anti-western

50

to

80

per

cent

of

their

crop

as

rent

for

their

land.

Peasants

ideas. However, Jung Chang, in her book

also

had

to

endure

the

hardships

imposed

by

the

Chinese

armies

that

Empress Dowager Cixi: The Concubine Who

periodically

ravaged

and

plundered

the

land.

The

urban

population

Launched Modern China (2013), claims

was

small

and

most

and

there

were

few

industrial

centres,

except

to

the

east,

that Cixi was in fact a modernizer who did

of

them

were

foreign-owned.

eventually implement reforms and loved

learning about foreign ways. Had she lived a

little longer, Chang argues, China might have

become a stable constitutional monarchy.

Why do you think historians have such

dierent perspectives of Cixi?

The spread of revolutionary ideas

Bitterness

dynasty

young

Sun Yatsen (孙逸仙 or 孙中山)

1866–1925

sowed

peasants,

central

built

against

foreign

the

seeds

townspeople

China.

Sun

people’s

three

for

and

Yatsen

revolutionaries.

on

interference

livelihoods

later

weakness

ideas

began

a

to

of

spread.

was

league,

the

and

Qing

1911,

uprising

leader

founded

democracy,

the

In

revolutionary

孙中山)

revolutionary

nationalism,

through

the

revolutionary

students

( 孙逸仙,

His

principles:

and

in

of

1905,

improving

in

the

was

the

socialism.

Sun Yatsen came from a peasant background

but he was educated in the West and was

Te 1911 Revlut d te cret

a Christian. In 1894 he founded the rst

f te republc anti-imperial organization and campaigned

for a republic. He became the rst leader of

In

the republic after the revolution of 1911, but

which

the

army

resigned in March 1912 to avoid civil war. In

imperial

August 1912, the nationalist Guomindang

time,

(GMD) Party was formed, with Sun as its leader.

in

dynasty,

but

strong

Qing

general,

Sun

to

114

to

Yatsen,

agree.

China

On

in

over

( 溥仪),

as

Sun

support.

decision

to

of

1912,

of

the

What

from

the

sealed

last

at

the

with

fate

the

that

had

formally

Alliance

were

rebels.

he,

of

of

imperial

little

abdication

the

imperial

powerful

Yatsen

the

abroad

Revolutionary

deal

China

spread,

China’s

revolutionaries

most

a

was

condition

Sun

following

Republic

The

away

broker

president.

rulers,

Yatsen

the

on

conspiracy

Qing

but

control

revolution

the

the

December.

full

( 袁世凯),

the

February

Puyi

1911.

military

the

of

president,

wrest

was

Shikai

took

him

to

revolutionary

toppling

October

to

support

south,

the

without

Yuan

emperor,

in

enough

dynasty

promised

the

in

appointed

government

the

of

returned

Nanjing

not

units

culminated

Yuan

rather

choice

the

came

than

but

infant

into

being.

C H A P T E R

3 . 1 :

M A o ’ s

R i s E

T o

L Ta

President Yuan Shikai

Yuan

Shikai’s

P o w E R

commitment

to

the

revolutionary

cause

was

19 4 9

Communication skills

soon

Discuss why you think Sun Yatsen’s Three to

be

tested.

In

1913

he

called

parliamentary

elections.

When

the

Principles – nationalism, democracy and Revolutionary

Alliance,

People’s

Party,

GMD

exposed

his

now

called

the

Guomindang

(National

the people’s livelihood – were popular. or

国民党 ),

won

the

elections,

Yuan

Shikai

Which groups of people would nd these reactionary

credentials

by

banning

the

GMD.

In

1914,

ideas appealing? he

shut

down

emperor.

To

make

Qing

to

stand

most

of

the

These

up

mineral

and

matters

to

to

included

Japan

resources

Shikai

died

and

in

in

proceeded

worse,

foreign

“Twenty-one

demands

Shandong

Yuan

parliament

he

aggression.

the

1916,

In

transfer

of

of

China

no

more

1915,

imposed

granting

southern

rule

proved

Demands ”

the

to

he

on

some

to

if

able

he

by

were

than

submitted

China

German

rights

as

the

to

Japan.

privileges

Japan

to

in

exploit

Manchuria.

leaving

China

weak

and

divided.

Te wrlrd perd, 1916–1927

After

the

death

government

which

over

in

foreign

much

generals,

of

or

very

tough

land

was

of

Ch i na

Chi na .

for

the

within

Chinese

empire

Mao

During

my

student

–

by

and

troops

not

peasants

burning

Yatsen

in

T he y

m a de

by

it

was

its

th e

had

to

inv ad in g

by

for

the

e ffec t ive

a

c e n t ra l

g ove r nm e nt

a ut h o ri t y

h a nd s

r i va l

e as ier

we a ke ne d

but

ed

and

to

he

to

and

Hunan,

half

such

a

up

dozen

things

and

as

city

of

di d

p ower fu l

m ad e

pa y

tax es

h ig h

a r m i es .

of

to

Tibe t ,

Be i ji n g,

e x ten d

r e gi on a l

c on d it i on s

an d

A n a rc h y

ou t s id er s

in

n ot

war l or ds

l os s

a

t h e ir

an d

i nt e r fe r e.

Xi n ji a ng ,

depended

on

the

a

knives

Th e

a nd

and

of

rival

occupied

inicted

out

on

tongues,

grinding

with

sand,

irons.

shaky

of

forces

was

ripping

position,

Guangzhou

support

the

school

eyes,

military

by

punishments

red-hot

in

in

northern

out

with

with

remained

the

brutal

gouging

slashing

overrun

Twice

The

government

launch

was

times.

branding

GMD

a

the

conscated.

decapitation,

the

set

to

in

funds

kerosene

planned

China

but

the

included

with

attempted

Sun

was

but

be twe e n

p i l la g e d

days

once

all

disembowelling

Sun

War

Chi na

wa s

Th e re

no

wrote:

warlords

Sun

P o wer

was

Mongolia.

Later,

the

1 927 .

p e a s a nts.

a nd

the re

r e co gnize d,

warlo r d s .

looted

Shi ka i ,

until

pow e r s

division

Outer

Yua n

in

southern

expedition

local

having

to

warlords.

China.

reunify

In

1922,

Shanghai.

The May Four th Movement, 1919

The

end

had

provided

effort

the

against

remote

died

of

on

First

the

Germany

villages

and

European

Shandong

World

Allies

would

it

soil.

be

in

is

War

with

increased

95

1916.

000

Most

estimated

This

returned

to

of

that

support

Chinese

labourers

was

China

them

as

to

were

many

given

after

humiliation.

help

as

the

the

peasants

20

with

with

000

the

defeat

China

war

from

may

have

expectation

of

that

Germany.

115

3

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

L Ta

However,

the

Treaty

of

Versailles,

signed

in

1919,

gave

Japan

the

Communication skills German

concessions

Mao grew up with four main inuences on

on

his thinking: Japan, the ruling elites, the

students

western powers and the warlords. Reecting

China

on the story so far, discuss the part played

Japanese

4

May

1919,

China.

followed

denounced

had

in

been

the

by

This

prompted

nationwide

Twenty-one

betrayed

by

the

student

protests

demonstrations.

Demands.

western

The

powers

in

protesters

and

Beijing

Thousands

were

felt

of

that

furious

at

expansionism.

by each of them in shaping his ideas.

Te emergece f M d te CCP Comintern The

May

Fourth

Movement

paved

the

way

for

the

emergence

Communist International, the body of

the

Chinese

in

1921.

Community

Party

(CCP ,

also

known

as

the

CPC)

set up in 1919 in Moscow to spread Formed

in

Shanghai,

the

party

was

led

by

Chen

Duxiu

communism worldwide. (陈独秀)

and

representing

Mar xist

A believer in the theories of Karl Marx

(1818–1883). Marx explained history

as the continuous conict between the

exploiters and the exploited; the elites

the

Li

formation

founding

a

of

He

the

had

Marxist

M a r x ’s

( 李大钊).

members.

delegates

U n i v e r s i t y.

was

Dazhao

57

CCP

was

and

Mao

been

convert,

Communist

The

It

originally

Russian

had

sent

Zedong,

involved

having

in

agents

an

the

read

a

numbered

Comintern

to

Chinese

delegates,

encouraged

China.

assistant

4May

12

had

One

librarian

of

at

demonstrations

translation

of

the

Beijing

and

Karl

Manifesto.

in power could only be removed through Neither

the

achieve

power

GMD

nor

the

CCP

was

in

a

strong

enough

position

to

working class revolution, of which the in

China

in

the

early

to

mid

1920s.

Large

areas

of

China

nal stage would result in an equal were

still

under

warlord

control,

but

Sun

Yatsen

was

determined

and

society or communist utopia. he

returned

would

Feng

the

of

fortunes

party,

exile

strengthen

Yuxiang

supportive

the

from

and

CCP’s

national

the

GMD

the

those

appeal

A

of

now

policies

GMD.

on

ideas.

Guangzhou

Nationalist

( 冯玉祥)

of

to

the

and

In

left

merger

the

had

with

cause.

control

had

the

addition,

of

of

the

the

Firstly,

of

parties

alliances

the

Beijing.

military

the

GMD

two

CCP

were

had

in

Christian

He

was

strength

was

a

to

potential

that

warlord

broadly

reinvigorate

disciplined

sympathetic

the

mind

to

to

political

some

of

broaden

the

GMD.

The First United Front

Wi t h

Russian

form

an

Comintern

alliance

differences

between

determination

communist

were

a

bloc

and

The

the

within

accepting

academy

GMD.

could

GMD

control

of

by

Under

the

the

and

and

United

numbers

also

the

the

provided

After

they

not

be

it

was

Front

a

had

from

establishment

military

of

was

much

57

increased

command

death

were

was

United

very

encouraged

were

united

evident

unless

the

in

that

the

crushed.

Front.

In

The

to

ideological

their

a

warlords

1924

CCP

inferior

the

formed

p a r t n e r,

discipline.

rose

saw

First

was

there

achieved

the

GMD

1924.

parties,

warlords;

interference

by

in

CCP

foreign

its

The

two

the

the

Although

formed

the

formation

GMD.

and

membership:

1927.

the

defeat

support,

CCP

GMD

strengthened

116

to

the

revolution

defeated

GMD

with

Sun

of

of

a

support

the

Chiang

force

to

Yatsen

remarkable

members

and

1925,

the

and

effect

1921

was

Whampoa

Kai-shek

support

in

in

on

to

000

further

military

( 蒋介石 ),

political

after

CCP

58

a

academy

the

aims

brief

of

the

power

C H A P T E R

struggle,

a

Chiang

signicant

suspicious

more

to

intent

The

of

the

on

in

a

1926

in

was

peasants

the

three

Mao

to

less

of

He

of

This

the

put

into

in

the

Jingwei

place

was

100

000

active

Front

their

a

Front.

the

been

R i s E

This

GMD

leaned

have

Yatsen’s

Fujian,

national

as

play

of

( 汪精卫 )

warlords.

Hunan

United

seen

would

United

right

may

Sun

the

more

to

about

the

the

leader,

mind:

becoming

of

on

M A o ’ s

T o

P o w E R

19 4 9

was

and

much

more

Front.

against

returned

support

Hunan

Wang

approximately

concerned

landlords.

leadership

to

was

become

United

targets

was

Shanghai.

rival

he

campaign

numbering

with

associations

Mao

the

leader

Kaishek

His

had

made

military

Meanwhile,

CCP

CCP .

and,

was

became

Chiang

preserving

Expedition,

May

the

left

decision

China

Kaishek

step.

3 . 1 :

in

men,

within

to

campaigns

leader

issues

against

signicant

part

in

to

Guangzhou

and

the

GMD

against

and

and

peasant

the

among

warlords.

the

warlords

Mao’s

in

Nanjing.

organize

the

unite

Northern

left

Jiangxi,

1926

CCP

plans

The

rise

to

and

the

CCP .

Chiang Kaishek (蒋介石) 1887–1975

Chiang Kaishek trained in the military and was an early

nationalist suppor ter. He joined the uprising to over throw

the imperial government in 1911. After the death of Sun

Yatsen, Chiang became leader of the GMD. The First United

Front was formed with the CCP in 1924, but Chiang turned

on the communists in 1927 and went on to establish

a government in Nanjing. Chiang reluctantly joined the

Second United Front in 1937 to resist the Japanese

invasions. After the defeat of Japan, civil war between the

GMD and CCP resumed. The GMD were defeated in 1949

and Chiang was forced to retreat to Taiwan.

▲

Chiang Kaishek, nationalist leader

The Nor thern Expedition, 1926–1928

The

Northern

Expedition,

against

the

to

Nanjing

take

success

of

against

them

success,

on

the

this

in

a

the

renewed

for

his

led

Shanghai.

warlords,

that

within

the

He

since

and

the

Kaishek,

had

the

cities

support.

the

the

He

GMD.

to

had

Expedition,

within

claim

deals

Yet,

played

had

to

Wang

advances

were

full

with

with

poised

military

several

this

Communist

a

Chiang

fomenting

as

rapid

forces

emerge.

but

also

GMD

hardly

brokered

began

that

made

GMD/CCP

could

support

concerned

struggle

he

alliance

Northern

was

Chiang

months

Chiang

they

the

middle-class

power

by

within

countryside

of

threat.

undermine

bid

the

and

condition

success

as

and

tensions

activism

in

warlords

signicant

part

increasingly

of

strikes

contend

Jingwei

saw

could

with

a

launched

a

leadership.

117

3

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

The White Terror, 1927

Chiang

the

Kaishek

GMD

spring

of

criminal

military

was

by

wanted

turning

1927,

with

force

to

members,

attack

and

his

claim

to

GMD

Manchurian

joined

then

beginning

apart

fate

by

of

would

the

a

Nanjing

war.

partly

The

be

groups

in

These

in

Wuhan

in

secret

to

he

came

of

the

societies,

This

where

under

known

Jingwei

as

the

renounced

Chiang.

control

In

used

Hunan,

became

Wang

seized

Front.

Shanghai.

and

support

( 张作霖)

supremacy

China,

associations

events

his

the

United

warlords,

still

collapsed,

gave

Zoulin

and

the

organizations

peasant

Front

and

of

The

of

Beijing

and

GMD.

established

civil

killed.

United

Zhang

the

and

bloc

landlords,

communist

leadership

with

authority

confrontations

were

the

warlord

forces

Chiang

As

of

Western

communists

thousands

his

communist

support

violent

union

reassert

and

“purge”

by

Terror”.

to

the

the

organizations,

followed

“White

on

nationalist

decade

survival

decided

(1928–1937)

of

by

government

the

the

CCP

in

hung

decisions

in

which

in

and

the

of

March

Route

the

(main

of

March

marking

China

was

balance,

actions

Route

Inner

Nanjing,

the

of

torn

and

Mao

the

its

Zedong.

Long

force)

Long

(other

forces)

Mongolia

Area

Gansu

under

communist

Ningxia

control

Hebei

Shanxi Lanzhou

Shandong

Qinghai

Shaanxi

Shanghai Henan

Hefei

China

Hubei Anhui

Sichuan

Zhejiang

Jiangxi Hunan

Fujian Guzhou

Guangxi

Yunnan

Guangdong

N

W

E

S

The provinces of China, and the route of the Long March of the Red Army to Y anan, 1934–1935

▲

The Jiangxi Soviet, 1927–1934

Mao

survived

mountains

of

the

White

Jiangxi

Terror

province

and

in

retreated

the

with

southeast

of

CCP

the

forces

to

country.

the

Here

Red Army he

established

his

base

as

the

Jiangxi

Soviet

territory,

where

the

which

had

a

This was the original name of Mao’s population

of

a

million,

and

this

was

Red

Army

developed

communist troops, later to be known as a

strong

guerrilla

force

to

resist

the

extermination

campaigns

of

the

the People’s Liberation Army (PL A). GMD.

118

Mao

was

dedicated

to

achieving

a

peasant

revolution,

an

aim

that

C H A P T E R

contradicted

in

the

CCP ,

revolution.

the

CCP

Mao’s

take

to

Mao

base

position

became

landlords

land

position

when

of

believed

the

its

on

his

distributed

although

land

in

was

a

a

more

should

Moscow

Law”:

than

was

was

richer

peasants.

T o

P o w E R

19 4 9

factions

the

instructed

rural

areas.

should

taken

advocated

policy

from

that

the

R i s E

lead

revolution

land

Mao

M A o ’ s

pro-Moscow

communist

peasants.

extreme

conscated

the

rather

“Land

the

and

workforce

from

towns

future

1928

among

urban

orders

the

direction

with

the

deed

activities

the

Comintern

that

frequently

clearer

and

reform,

1931,

the

which

3 . 1 :

from

the

moderate

implemented

after

The Futian Incident, 1930

It

was

also

brutality

Red

Army

regarded

that

he

Mao’s

his

troops

them

the

his

way

the

he

they

the

who

and

were

methods

rule

of

that

executed

other

party

applied

Incident”

plotting

against

the

Mao

“Futian

supported

forefront

would

period

In

tortured

rebels

authoritarian

to

Jiangxi

rivals.

were

as

suspected

rise

the

during

against

on

opposition

and

would

a

calculated

1930,

Mao’s

against

potential

of

orders.

him,

and

leaders

would

also

be

some

in

be

it

a

Mao

is

the

likely

party.

key

very

4000

trait

evident

in

in

China.

Source skills

Do

The Futian Incident

not

out It

was

the

rst

large-scale

purge

in

the

Party,

and

of

well

episode

–

Maoism

before

in

–

Stalin’s

many

is

still

responsibility

ways

the

covered

and

Great

formative

up

motives,

Purge.

to

this

and

This

his

Mao’s

extreme

important

the

leaders

maximum

too

quickly,

information;

then

but

squeeze

from

they

give

you

can

go

on

to

unearth

the

others.

critical

moment

day.

the

took

clues place

kill

them

of

Mao

personal

Zedong,

found

in

the

quoted

party

from

a

secret

document

archives.

brutality,

Question remain

a

taboo.

With Jung

Chang

and

Jon

Halliday.

2005.

reference

purpose, The

Unknown

Story.

Jonathan

Cape.

to

their

nature,

origin

and

Mao,

p.

assess

the

value

and

limitations

of

the

100. following

extracts

leadership

of

the

in

explaining

Mao’s

rise

to

the

CCP .

The Long March, 1934–1935

by

GMD

the

was

was

the

Japanese

determined

ofcial

invasion

to

government

of

crush

the

extermination

campaigns

In

forces

of

Manchuria

China

in

communists

rather

than

but

1931.

and

resisting

it

was

Chiang

he

weakened

Self-management skills

Kaishek

persisted

the

L Ta

The

in

Construct a visual summary or spider

his

diagram to show the impor tance of Mao’s

Japanese.

leadership in the CCP victory of 1949. 1934,

GMD

encircled

the

Jiangxi

Soviet.

Chiang

hoped

to

Consider ideology, persuasion, coercion, starve

the

CCP

into

defeat

and

capitalize

on

his

change

in

military

violence and propaganda. tactics.

to

The

“blockhouse”

consolidate

CCP .

This

adviser

Braun,

guerrilla

position

resulted

Comintern

Otto

the

in

Li

even

of

heavy

De

persuading

methods.

encroached

strategy

Mao

his

was

armies

defeats

( 李德)

the

meant

for

who

building

as

the

was,

hunted

communists

in

Revolutionary

relegated

they

defensive

fact,

from

the

down

and

German

Military

fortications

–

Council

leadership

the

led

to

real

to

but

name

abandon

the

GMD

further.

119

3

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

The

CCP

CCP

Shaanxi,

epic

the

TOK discussion

the

its

of

a

on

from

the

the

Dadu

results

11

and

use

and

of

the

000

would

for

River

country.

provide

propaganda

gorge

much

forced

Jiangxi

kilometres

threadbare

were

was

besieged

northwest

year,

of

the

nearly

and

crossing

across

and

in

than

draw

annihilation

ed

journey

more

to

faced

troops

the

while

This

CCP

under

was

About

100

headed

for

the

Long

miles).

with

an

In

The

22

March:

the

only

20

legend

was

swung

Long

000

an

took

episode

soldiers

reality

legend:

000

Yanan,

March

inspiring

famous

when

re.

the

and

One

Bridge,

than

retreat.

(7000

purposes.

Luding

bleaker

to

Soviet

March

of

the

Chinese, Western and Soviet troops

survived.

However,

the

March

would

play

an

essential

part

in

historiography have conicting narratives communist

folklore

and

there

is

little

doubt

that

once

again,

the

CCP

of the events at the Zunyi Conference, so it had

shown

resilience

against

the

odds.

is dicult to get an accurate record of what

There

is

evidence

that

Mao

was

not

the

initial

leader

of

the

Long

March,

happened. Archives detailing the events

or

even

selected

to

take

part

in

it.

It

has

been

suggested

that

at

the

Zunyi

were not opened until 1985 and the

Conference

held

in

January

1935,

Mao

Zedong

made

a

crucial

comeback

details of who attended and how the new

to

the

party

leadership

by

arguing

that

the

CCP

should

return

to

guerrilla

leadership was elected are still in dispute.

methods.

Supported

by

Zhou

Enlai

( 周恩来),

Mao

outmanoeuvered

his

Discuss how the events and outcomes opponents,

such

as

Otto

Braun

and

the

Comintern

members,

and

took

of the Zunyi Conference are likely to military

control

strategy

was

of

the

First

Front

Army.

This

change

in

leadership

and

have been por trayed in China, the USSR, a

disappointment

to

the

Soviets,

who

argued

that

there

was

and also in the West. How can we decide not

a

fair

vote.

Although

this

change

was

signicant,

Mao’s

rise

to

the

which version of events is most valid? leadership

of

the

CCP

was

by

no

means

a

foregone

conclusion.

L Ta

Thinking and communication skills

Examine the propaganda poster below, which shows the Red Army crossing the

Dadu River during the Long March.

Discuss how this event has been depicted and the ways in which this may

contrast to the realities of the Long March. (Alternatively, you could search online

for an alternative Long March propaganda poster, download it and annotate the

key elements of the image.)

TOK discussion

Discuss how propaganda inuences the

way we perceive historical knowledge.

▲

A propaganda poster showing the Red Army crossing the Luding Bridge over the

Dadu River in 1935

120

C H A P T E R

3 . 1 :

M A o ’ s

R i s E

T o

P o w E R

19 4 9

Yanan, 1935–1945

After

his

the

surviving

personal

military

marchers

authority

skill

–

as

on

well

as

settled

the

CCP .

violent

in

Yanan,

With

a

Mao

began

combination

repression

–

Mao

to

of

would

impose

political

and

overcome

three

challenges:

●

potential

leadership

Comintern

●

the

need

increase

●

the

The

for

GMD

leader

Mao

of

in

the

that

CCP

the

his

as

workers.

the

CCP

opponents

support

within

used

to

base,

War

of

the

and

attempts

by

the

win

popular

support

and

party.

overcome

against

the

these

Japanese

1946–1949.

within

peasants

beyond

had

a

the

the

with

wipe

the

party

challenges

and

would

(1937–1945)

These

methods

emerge

as

and

the

be

a

against

allowed

cause

of

of

the

from

and

Mao

to

undisputed

the

he

also

them

and

controls,

literacy.

reached

and

line,

CCP

help

and

whereby

cadres

them.

His

out

industrial

committees”,

mass

people.

rent

improve

bourgeoisie”,

“revolutionary

with

learn

and

however:

“petite

tactics

relationship

and

class,

in

the

redistribution

corruption

the

participated

peasants

land

out

peasant

advocated

close

the

to

bourgeoisie”,

Peasants

developed

to

Mao

success

position

over

Mao

many

struggle

campaigns

went

among

his

party

recruits

Civil

“national

1940s

the

from

the

China.

won

well

appeal

to

rebuild

military

methods

consolidate

as

to

bids

dominate

ideological

template

the

to

were

This

by

the

to

the

CCP

live

converted

mass line

CCP policy aimed at increasing and

cultivating contacts with the broad mass

of the people and showing the leadership

Mao.

role of the par ty. The

“Six

Principles

1

Put

back

2

Rice-stalk

3

Be

4

Give

5

Pay

6

Don’t

the

incursions

oppression

wrote

which

put

rose

a

opposition.

of

own

Mao

was

off

outside

their

“Self-criticism”

air

their

40

of

even

if

for

house.

bundled

up

and

returned.

can.

borrow,

even

only

if

a

things

it

is

only

a

needle.

chopstick.

when

000

of

in

to

possessions

contact,

sessions

doubts

in

and

also

1937

and

to

people

1942

of

led

or

while

were

secrets.

to

are

not

Not

to

million

the

the

in

of

by

A

removal

to

which

speak

were

and

was

rules

publicly

cut

Yanan

denounced.

everyone

invited

Yanan,

of

potential

ideas

censorship

Mao

in

series

and

CCP

1945.

of

the

stance

support.

works

party.

“crimes”

Strict

enemies

at

nationalist

popular

disloyal

their

posts.

held,

1.2

on

being

confess

Mao’s

won

philosophical

authority

suspected

forced

increased,

invaders

political

campaigns”

of

to

be

China

the

stamp

Anyone

stripped

from

a

you

search

into

of

from

number

his

“rectication

beliefs

when

you

or

all

were:

house.

membership

Mao

leaving

broken,

yourself

Army”

must

people

things

help

Red

when

everything

all

Japanese

against

Help

back

for

doors

the

mattresses

polite.

their

As

all

of

was

encouraged

suspicion,

but

to

121

3

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

self-criticize

for

too

Aleadership

cult

Chairman

the

the

of

Politburo.

long

began

could

to

Communist

CCP

result

emerge

ideology

in

in

Central

was

demotion

1943,

and

Committee

ofcially

and

Mao

and

referred

punishment.

adopted

the

Chairman

to

as

“Mao

titles

of

Zedong

thought”.

M’s delgy

Mao

the

Zedong

rst

half

thought

of

the

industrialization

off

the

peasant

L Ta

Thinking and communication

going

this

as

as

the

masses

on

to

China

create

two-stage

Party

a

“sinied”

had

Russia.

of

While

Marx’s

socialist

capable

society.

also

went

of

version

of

undergone

Karl

revolutionary

revolutionary

were

revolution

a

China

afrmed

principal

in

on

with

incapable

Communist

proletariat

based

century

compared

peasantry

Russian

was

20th

Marx

emphasis

class,

Mao

on

the

against

had

the

argued

1920s,

Marxism,

In

limited

consciousness

overthrowing

From

Marxism.

very

written

and

the

industrial

that

the

feudalism

Mao’s

and

belief

which

in

advocated

a

skills one-stage

revolution

of

the

proletariat

class.

Draw a visual summary or spider diagram

During

the

1930s,

the

“28

Bolsheviks”

and

the

Comintern

met

Mao’s

to show how Mao Zedong became

ideas

with

scorn,

but

Mao

won

the

argument

by

interpreting

Marxism

leader of the CCP. Explore the themes of

and

applying

it

to

China’s

situation.

In

1940,

Mao

published

On

New

propaganda, violence, and Mao’s military

Democracy,

in

which

he

dened

the

Chinese

communist

revolution

abilities, ideology, popular appeal, and

not

as

a

class

movement

but

as

a

national

one.

This

united

the

urban

policies. Then consider the signicance

and

rural

masses

against

Japanese

incursions.

The

brutality

of

the

of each factor.

rectication

were

Class discussion

campaigns,

imprisoned

acceptable,

and

partly

arguments.

In

in

tortured

through

1942

which

he

to

fear

wrote,

more

than

extract

and

also

“Some

a

thousand

confessions,

through

comrades

became

Mao’s

see

party

members

broadly

potent

only

the

ideological

interests

How similar and how dierent is the story of

the

part

and

not

the

whole.

They

do

not

understand

the

Party’s

of Mao’s rise to the leadership of the CCP system

of

democratic

centralism;

they

do

not

understand

that

the

Party’s

compared to that of Stalin in the USSR? interests

are

above

personal

and

sectional

interests.”

Te Jpese ccupt, 1931–1945

“The

Japanese

of

the

heart”,

in

1931,

the

installing

to

Japan

respond

as

to

to

in

which

良),

help

and

Zhu

with

the

would

than

De

CCP

GMD.

in

urging

that

the

had

him

defeat

had

their

of

Chiang

United

the

bring

Japan.

a

end

Chiang

established

in

1937

to

the

slow

the

to

in

civil

( 张学

Kaishek

Enlai

and

agreed,

nationalist

his

CCP

ght

Zhou

war

to

by

1936,

Chiang

Mao,

reluctantly

stronger

by

Xueliang

placed

disease

appealed

was

Incident

from

a

distracted

Zhang

and

had

Therefore

Xian

letter

an

too

are

Manchuria

province

who

Kaishek

Front

command,

communists

the

Puyi,

communists.

received

to

invading

seemingly

followed

in

communists

control

back.

the

the

After

emperor,

Second

This

but

1941.

incursions,

second

attack

Zhang

to

throne

the

enemy.

to

arrest.

skin,

last

against

Kaishek’s

( 朱德),

the

his

forging

communists

be

the

with

orders

house

get

Japanese

common

the

China’s

campaigns

Chiang

of

Kaishek

consolidated

ruler

him

further

refused

under

122

the

disease

Japanese

credited

Japan,

a

Chiang

puppet

extermination

were

are

said

unite

but

it

credentials

C H A P T E R

3 . 1 :

M A o ’ s

R i s E

T o

P o w E R

19 4 9

Source skills

Car toon of Japan invading China

▲

Question

What

In

can

1937,

you

Japan

learn

from

launched

this

a

source

full-scale

about

Japan’s

invasion

of

actions

China

in

and

the

set

1930s?

up

a

The Rape of Nanjing, 1937–1938 government

in

Nanjing.

The

entire

eastern

seaboard

of

China

fell

under

The Rape of Nanjing, also known as the Japanese

control

and

this

had

a

devastating

impact

on

the

Chinese.

Nanjing Massacre, describes the mass Although

the

nation

was

more

united

than

ever,

the

Sino-Japanese

war

murder and mass rape committed by would

play

a

crucial

part

in

weakening

the

GMD

and

strengthening

the

Japanese troops during the Japanese position

of

Mao

and

the

CCP .

occupation of Nanjing. Hundreds of

In

1941,

the

GMD

army

turned

on

the

communist

armies

in

the

south,

thousands of people were killed and

which

lost

Chiang

Kaishek

vital

support

at

home

and

abroad.

Initially,

gures suggest that 30 000 to 80 000

the

Soviet

Union

was

the

only

country

to

give

assistance

to

China

but

rapes took place. The event is still a raw

after

1941

the

USA

sent

approximately

$500

million

of

military

aid

memory for many Chinese and it aects

to

China.

A

number

of

missions

were

sent

to

try

and

reinvigorate

the

Sino-Japanese relations even today.

Second

gulf

between

Chiang

to

United

the

Kaishek’s

ignore

market;

the

Front

the

the

soldiers

conscription,

and

to

CCP

ee

to

Chiang’s

the

GMD

rice

and

civilians.

intellectuals

was

the

would

sickness

were

became

used

his

to

the

be

The

and

tied

by

and

of

corruption,

were

half

selling

full

peasants

of

this

up

at

widened

police

arrest,

The

were

the

the

appeared

black

Conditions

of

the

prevent

dictatorial.

to

discontent

communists.

to

Chiang

on

particularly

Many

night

but

food

sand.

were

starvation.

increasingly

secret

Expressions

turned

stubborn,

CCP .

troops

terrible.

some

was

weakened

GMD

sacks

faced

so

Chiang

and

that

were

leadership

Generalissimo

execute

GMD

reports

often

GMD

but

He

was

was

tried

deserting.

titled

and

repressed

economy

by

soldiers

them

torture,

for

hit

and

in

many

decline,

123

3

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

which

cities.

to

damaged

Ination

print

more

different

mostly

was

was

and

from

end

90

levied

the

forced

the

In

the

in

saved

1945,

much

of

after

the

the

dropping

in

but

any

of

peace

USA

and

With

the

the

1946,

to

China

of

lead

President

to

try

controlled

The

civil

Some

and

to

the

had

which

ideas,

because

prevent

area

the

simply

were

which

he

Kaishek.

northern

an

that

his

in

was

cities

taxes,

advance

and

class

answer

Chiang

thinly

controlled

two

a

atomic

came

to

the

the

China.

GMD

CCP

By

populated

Japanese

world

the

USSR

China’s

truce

was

sent

had

the

by

occupation

wanted

in

stability

but

strip

that

the

Cold

in

an

War

in

between

aims

in

the

China.

Manchuria

Soviet

rejoiced

usher

of

its

inuence

in

Asia.

State

the

would

agreed

would

with

and

China

relationship

to

of

between

Hiroshima

end.

conicting

concerned

Secretary

deal

was

coalition

emerged

dominance

a

on

abrupt

hostile

superpowers

USA

bombs

an

GMD–CCP

new

political

A

too

increasingly

broker

that

China.

to

a

Truman

and

hope

as

the

Japan,

to

Mao

over

Japanese

spread

war

that

These

resources.

Truman’s

reverted

faded,

USSR.

would

In

hopes

dened

retreat

industrial

China

soon

which

gave

admitted

of

Sino-Japanese

Europe,

the

middle

increased

countryside

later

the

era

hyperination.

this

CCP

the

Chiang’s

communists.

Nagasaki,

victory

support,

but

credibility

was

the

Mao

Chinese

All

exploit

war,

Chinese.

to

moral

and

GMD

control,

government

peasants.

could

of

led

The

Yanan,

CCP

of

which

southwards

the

base

out

rates.

Japanese

million

had

on

controlling

of

main

money,

exchange

promoting

Mao

the

spiralled

George

GMD

ensure

by

July,

and

a

Marshall

CCP .

It

was

non-communist-

both

sides

had

war.

Te Cese Cvl Wr, 1945–1949 L Ta

Self-management skills

The

odds

of

a

CCP

outnumbered

the

victory

CCP

by

were

four

initially

to

one;

very

it

slim.

also

had

The

an

GMD

air

armies

force

and

was

Summarise the role of each of the better

equipped

for

conventional

battle.

The

GMD

was

recognized

by

following factors in Mao’s rise to power in other

powers

(including

the

Soviet

Union)

as

the

legitimate

government.

a table: economic; social; the impact of The

USSR

provided

aid

and

military

assistance

and

tried

to

curb

Mao.

The

war; the weakness of the political system; GMD

controlled

most

of

the

larger

cities

and

the

railway

network

at

the

the role of key individuals. outset

By

of

1948

their

L Ta

the

the

the

war,

by

direction

guerrilla

rural

and

of

training

areas.

The

1947

the

to

CCP

had

war

began

capitalize

had

taken

also

on

Yanan

to

from

change

their

received

hold

as

of

the

communists.

CCP

troops

northern

weapons

from

used

China

the

and

former

Thinking and research skills Russian

1

occupation

forces,

taken

from

the

Japanese

armies.

By

June

Make a table to sum up the strengths 1948

CCP

troops

were

almost

equal

in

number

to

the

GMD.

The

CCP

and weaknesses of the GMD and the secured

control

of

northern

China

and

made

incursions

into

the

cities,

CCP throughout the Chinese Civil despite

Stalin’s

orders

that

the

cities

should

be

given

to

the

GMD.

The

War. Consider leadership, territory, USA

provided

limited

aid

to

the

GMD,

but

had

withdrawn

support

by

foreign powers, military strategy, and 1948

when

it

became

clear

that

the

GMD

cause

was

lost.

popular suppor t .

The

2

CCP

won

popular

support

while

the

reputation

of

the

GMD

was

Reect on whether the CCP won or in

disrepute

for

corruption,

ination

and

repression.

CCP

troops

were

whether the GMD lost the civil war. disciplined

and

Mao

Discuss the signicance of each factor in

and

explaining Mao’s rise to power.

committed

against

oldest

was

124

the

CCP

son,

had

a

had

broad

those

sent

to

used

party

appeal

who

the

propaganda

among

did

not

the

conform.

countryside

to

to

good

peasants

take

but

Anying

part

in

effect.

Mao

atrocities

( 毛岸英),

the

were

Mao’s

suppression

C H A P T E R

of

the

He

peasantry

described

while

studying

“thugs”

Chiang

He

and

his

northern

was

lost

in

not

best

and

uid

providing

( 林彪 )

Soviet

made

central

and

them

military

strong

the

dregs

and

of

to

ghting

He

strategic

for

the

than

CCP

against

anything

wrote

that

before

the

he

the

had

party

were

Mao’s

poor.

cult

of

condence

weapons

was

crucial

By

the

1948

CCP .

bolstered

in

cost

between

leadership

in

further

that

R i s E

T o

P o w E R

19 4 9

GMD.

seen

cadres

him

establishing

Communication

lines

inspired

mistakes

Manchuria

China.

expertise

ght

worse

Union.

some

then,

with

to

as

M A o ’ s

were

society”.

supply

By

them

atrocities

troops

Manchuria.

proportions

force

CCP

“the

Kaishek

sent

and

the

3 . 1 :

making

his

the

had

GMD

war.

of

generals

GMD

had

reached

epic

defectors

them;

the

the

control

and

Red

Lin

Army

Taiwan

Biao’s

into

From 1945 until his death in 1975,

a

Chiang ruled Taiwan, a group of islands to

force.

the east of China, as the Republic of China By

January

1949,

the

CCP

controlled

Beijing,

followed

by

the

south

and

(ROC). Until 1971, many western nations west.

Realizing

that

defeat

was

imminent,

Chiang

Kaishek

resigned

the

and the UN recognized Taiwan as the only presidency

and

began

to

move

his

government

base

to

Taiwan.

Mao

legitimate government of China with a and

the

Communists

proclaimed

victory

and

focused

on

the

next

steps

of

seat on the Security Council. their

consolidation

of

power.

U

S

S

R

1946

area

controlled

by

communists

area

controlled

by

communists

1949

r

June

communists

u

Additional

by

A

controlled

m

Area

Additional

Communists

Area

guerrilla

controlled

by

operations

Guomindang

1950

1945–1949

after

1950

Harbin

Battle

with

month

and

year

Changchun

(10.48) Final

communist

campaigns

to

expel

Jilin

Guomindang

armies

(1.48)

Zhangjiakou

Shenyang (1.48) Hami (11.48) Xinbao-an

Dahushon

Dunhuang Jinzhou Sea

Beijing

of

Japan

Tainjin

(1.49)

(1.49) Xining

Taiyuan

Yan-an

Jinan

Germu Kaifeng Luoyong Lanzhou

(4.48)

Yellow Xuzhou

Yushu

Xi-an Sea

Naqu

(1.49)

Shuangduiji

Nanjing Hankow Shanghai hasa

(1.49) Langxi Horigzhou

East

Chongqing China

Changsha

Sea

Guilin Guiyang Fuzhou

Xiamen

Taiwan

Macau

(Portuguese)

▲

Hong

Kong

Pacific

Ocean

(British)

The stages of the Chinese Civil War, 1945–1949

125

3

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

L Ta

Self-management skills

Construct a case to explain Mao’s rise to power, from dierent historical perspectives. You could copy and ll in a version

of the following table. Some boxes have been star ted for you.

Historical perspectives on Mao’s rise to power

Perspectives of the historians

Likely ideas

Intentionalists explain events

Mao shaped the course of

by focusing on the decisive

China’s history.

impact of par ticular individuals

or events.

Facts and ideas to suppor t this perspective

Mao was a founding member of the CCP in 1921.

Mao’s ideology and strategy were crucial to

Mao’s actions and ideas explain

the sur vival of the CCP in 1934 because of

his rise.

the Long March.

Mao was also crucial to CCP success because…

Structuralists (or Functionalists,

China had a long history of political

as they are sometimes known)

upheaval and this aected many

react against the intentionalist

dierent groups of people in China.

approach and build up a picture

of what happened through

The Revolution of 1911 did not

achieve the desired eect.

meticulous research, often at the Peasant associations were

grassroots level. crucial to CCP success.

Mar xists

work

standpoint

forces

factor

and

are

in

from

that

the

the

econom ic

main

historical

ca u s a l

ch a nge

development .

Revisionist approaches are

Historians can challenge orthodox

relatively recent and challenge

views of Mao, which were

what had been up to then

developed during the Cold War.

accepted as or thodox or even

denitive interpretations.

The end of the Cold War allowed

archives (many held in the USSR)

on Mao to be opened and viewed

Mao’s rise to power as a liberation

by scholars.

civil conict still prevails.

Historians,

outside

especially

China,

In the West, or thodox views

propaganda

during the Cold War centered

CCP

on Mao’s rise being controlled

by Moscow.

126

Mao’s guerilla tactics and military leadership

In China, the orthodox view of

from imperial aggression and

par ty

can

and

view.

thos e

look

the

Mao’s rise was not orchestrated by Moscow…

bey ond

of f icia l

were crucial…

Secret documents and accounts have

revealed the impor tance of Mao’s brutality

against his opponents…

3.2

Mao’s consolidation of power,

1949–1976

Conceptual understanding

Key questions

➔

What methods did Mao use to consolidate his power?

➔

How did Mao establish and maintain an authoritarian state?

➔

Why did the Sino–Soviet rift happen?

➔

How successful was Mao’s foreign policy?

Key concepts

➔

Change

➔

Causes

➔

Perspectives

➔

Signicance

➔

Continuity

Chairman Mao and the People’s Republic

After

declaring

October

full

1949,

political

electried

from

and

smash

class

satisfy

number

many

Chiang

to

●

as

●

CCP

●

were

country.

Although

communists

on

the

further

the

CCP

Republic

took

a

the

free

the

stiff

China

of

victory

stage.

Mao

from

to

quell

in

secure

and

relief

both

Zedong

▲

1 October 1949: Mao Zedong proclaims the

People’s Republic of China

imperialism,

Expectations

pressure

(PRC)

to

opposition,

country

revolution.

under

of

measures

sense

faced

international

to

was

also

hasty

across

the

opposition

jubilant,

after

the

country

decades

of

was

war

and

still

politically

division.

The

and

CCP

faced

challenges:

and

the

December.

Nations

legitimate

Opposition

People’s

CCP

hopes.

Kaishek

United

the

the

the

promised

and

unstable

in

of

and

and

had

so

urgent

Taiwan

The

high,

national

of

the

the

country

divisions

economically

●

of

nation,

the

were

Although

a

Zedong

communists

country

and

formation

control

the

within

the

the

Mao

nationalists

From

accepted

government

parties

within

here

the

of

continued

they

posed

nationalists

ghting

an

in

before

invasion

Taiwan,

eeing

threat.

not

the

CCP ,

China.

China

still

existed

and

posed

a

threat

to

control.

Many

party

acquired

cadres

the

skills

were

to

trained

as

a

guerrilla

force,

and

had

not

cadres

Devoted Communist Par ty workers

govern.

who spied and repor ted on fellow CCP ●

The

communists

feared

that

separatist

elements

on

China’s

remote

members and the public. borders

●

would

Expectations

undermine

were

unemployment,

●

There

who

were

high

and

serious

wanted

to

in

unity.

a

war-weary

rebellions,

resist

nation

used

to

ination,

corruption.

grain

especially

in

requisitioning

the

and

south,

by

imminent

villagers

land

reform.

127

3

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

Moderate beginnings Source skills

The

communists

aimed

to

bring

stability

after

decades

of

turmoil

and

had

The declaration of the People’s little

Republic of China

I

was

burst

so

full

out

welled

of

up

China,

so

I

joy

my

in

of

and

foreigners,

had

no

doubt

on

that

throat,

my

full

exploitation

from

of

eyes.

my

and

I

hope,

was

so

be

Mao

nearly

so

the

proud

that

of

the

of

of

the

revolution,

the

Chinese

crowds

history

when

Source:

F .

Mao

–

an

for

the

Dikotter

in

The

ever.

maker

of

the

is

the

message

convinced

to

stay.

began

stamped

middle

and,

on

Under

and

government

classes

provided

condition

the

only

slogan

the

servants

most

of

the

their

“New

and

civil

police

servants

loyalty

to

the

Democracy”,

hardened

to

enemies

a

of

stay

and

PRC,

new

the

era

regime

out.

The structure of the PRC

in

order

Tragedy

conveyed

to

administer

governed

by

a

the

country,

bureau

of

China

four

major

was

divided

into

six

regions,

ofcials:

the

●

Chairman

●

Party

●

Military

commander

●

Political

commissar.

PRC.

secretary

of

Question

this

Chinese

former

a

Liberation

What

the

great

onlooker

declared

ask

managers

cooperation

each

new

to

The

industrial

were

In

leader

but

aggression

gone

was

initially.

the

were

tears

happy

suffering,

would

that

heart

choice

by

source?

Ofcers

which

rested

56

of

of

put

with

leading

them

Mao

the

People’s

China

the

Central

party

served

Zedong.

Liberation

effectively

People’s

members,

as

was

the

(PLA)

military

veterans

under

undisputed

lled

control.

Government

mostly

vice-chairman

Mao

Army

under

Council.

of

the

the

the

in

This

Yanan

Chairman

leader

last

Central

of

two

posts,

authority

comprised

years.

the

Six

Council,

government.

The reunication campaigns

The

CCP

Religion

feared

posed

resistance

to

a

that

a

nationalist

particular

centralized

borders,

PLA

reunication campaigns

series

reunication

A means for the CCP to secure full control

south

of

of China and its borders; claims that these

had

signicantly

areas were historically par t of China are

Chinese.

contested to this day.

leader,

a

of

China.

the

who

beginning

Uprising

The

Dalai

Class discussion

but

of

a

sent

control

regime

1959

on

invasion

Outer

not

of

forces

with

of

and

secure

parts

of

China

regions

Tibet.

and

religious

the

authority

six

fought

or

the

in

to

the

The

of

to

Tibet.

in

from

their

to

and

the

spiritual

their

match

marked

(See

a

west

defend

This

China’s

Tibetans

identity

training

months.

suppression

fuelled

to

entered

Tibetans

China.

it

order

outlying

weapons

within

In

united

because

the

the

the

Tibetan

139.)

acted

a

000

the

Tibet

terror

page

60

have

with

a

control

invaded

forces

cultural

identied

Around

did

the

They

PLA

racial,

weaken

authority.

annex

1950,

different

full

to

could

communist

campaigns.

October

Lama.

to

communist

Buddhists

province

controlled

were

they

took

of

PLA

western

In

Tibetan

autonomy

PLA,

units

elements

threat

large

Mongolia.

with

similar

Muslim

The

CCP

brutality

population

feared

in

Xinjiang,

bordering

Xinjiang

falling

a

distant

Soviet-

into

Soviet

Research and discuss the claim that hands

or

even

becoming

part

of

a

separatist

movement,

supported

by

Tibet is historically par t of China. Why do neighbouring

Muslim

states.

By

1951

the

PLA

had

secured

full

control

historians disagree? Is there such a thing of

the

province,

while

at

the

same

time

securing

CCP

authority

in

as historical fact? Guangdong

128

in

southern

China,

the

traditional

base

of

the

GMD.

seiradnuob

ecnivorP

lanoitanretnI

mk

003

0

aeS

htuoS

HTUOS

I

J

U

F

I

X

G

J

S

A

I

J

IEBEH

N

NANIAH

I

X

A

H

S

X

N

A

A

H

S

DNALIAHT

SOAL

MANTEIV

fo

yaB

lagneB

HSEDALGNAB

AIDNI

NATSIKAP

TSEW-HTRON

UAERUB

AISSUR

ANIHC

GNAIJNIX

TEBIT

)GNAZIX(

TSEW-HTUOS

UAERUB

NATUHB

ANIHC

A M R UB

IAHGNIQ

USNAG

NANNUY

NAUHCIS

USNAG

UOHZIUG

IXGNAUG

I

HTRON

UAERUB

AILOGNOM

ANIHC

NAUTIUS

N

NANEH

IEBUH

NA N U H

GNODGNAUG

LARTNEC

UAERUB

anihC

ANIHC

A

I

A

H

IUHNA

N

O

D

N

A

N

S G

N

RA HA H C

EHER

G

U

GNAIJEHZ

NILIJ

NAWIAT

t saE

aeS

anihC

TSAE

UAERUB

ANIHC

HTRON

AEROK

HTUOS

AEROK

evitartsinimdA

sredrob

noisivid

006

N

NAPAJ

ae S

napaJ

fo

TSAE-HTRON

UAERUB

ANIHC

GNAIJGNOLIEH

AISSUR

The administrative regions of the People’s Republic of China

▲

N NI XG AI

19 4 9 – 19 5 5 P o w E R , o f C o n s o l i d A T i o n M A o ’ s 3 . 2 : C H A P T E R

129

3

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

The anti-movements

In

1951,

the

Mao

announced

“three-anti

“ve-anti

turn

on

China

The

campaign”.

the

in

middle

its

early

targets

of

waste

●

corruption

●

inefciency.

“ve-anti

●

industrial

●

tax

●

bribery

●

fraud

●

theft

As

After

class

beginning

and,

by

three

that

years

had

of

1952,

a

he

in

reform

had

power,

supported

movement

extended

the

Mao

CCP

this

was

called

into

the

beginning

administration

to

of

years.

the

●

The

the

campaign”

“three-anti

campaign”

campaign”

targets

were:

were:

sabotage

evasion

part

of

of

government

these

reactionaries and counter-revolutionaries

reactionaries

Those deemed to be the remnants of the

Mao

claimed

mass

and

a

property.

mobilization

campaigns,

Mao

counter-revolutionaries

strong

ideological

basis

for

his

as

Zedong

enemies

declared

of

the

state.

actions:

“bureaucratic capitalist class”. Essentially, “Our

present

task

is

to

strengthen

the

people’s

state

apparatus

–

meaning

the middle classes (bourgeoisie) posed principally

the

people’s

army,

the

people’s

police

and

the

people’s

courts–

a “counter-revolutionary” threat to the thereby

safeguarding

the

national

defence

and

protecting

the

people’s

communist revolution. Mao regarded interest.”

the destruction of the bourgeoisie as

essential for the revolution, in which only

one class, the proletariat, or revolutionary

workers, would exist.

English

became

transactions

in

of

Shanghai,

in

the

gained

were

streets

cinema.

ferocious

seen

were

Jazz

of

the

language

of

renamed

foreign

In

and

the

and,

thousands

of

exploitation

former

foreign

customs,

banned

feudal

of

tolerated.

Chinese

was

hundreds

vestiges

the

were

Religion,

attack.

pace,

as

English

as

and

the

names

were

and

on

no

concession

became

traditions

attack

books

French

came

taboo

under

intellectuals

burned

because

they

past.

Censorship and propaganda

By

February

remained

through

news

people

most

the

the

conformed

widely

with

news.

CCP

to

advertised

participated

national

newspapers

same

re-education,

reports

slogans

1949

printed

the

the

were

Once

could

party

success

enthusiasm,

out

of

business

journalists

rely

line.

of

on

and

self-censorship

Communist

the

and

that

that

gone

that

all

songs,

Many

they

had

so

rallies,

revolution.

believing

those

editors

were

and

Chinese

a

part

of

transformation.

Thought reform

All

over

and

as

130

China,

in

universities,

“thought

government

people

reform”,

were

ofces,

factories,

“re-educated”.

involved

everyone

workshops,

This

having

process,

to

learn

schools,

also

the

known

new

party

a

C H A P T E R

to

write

and

Dikotter

was

a

transform

confessions

wrote,

loyal

“By

servant

themselves

and

the

of

admit

end

the

M A o ’ s

into

“new

past

of

mistakes,

1952

C o n s o l i d A T i o n

people”.

often

virtually

in

every

Many

P o w E R ,

were

public.

student

o f

As

or

forced

19 4 9 – 19 5 5

L TA

doctrine

3 . 2 :

Communication skills

Frank

There were three main class labels: good

teacher

classes, the middle classes, and bad

state”.

classes. Discuss which of the following

groups would have fallen under each class

The Great Terror label: In

the

early

years

of

communist

rule,

the

CCP

could

easily

identify

revolutionary cadres, the petty bourgeoisie, the

“enemy”

because

of

the

household

registration

system,

which

was

landlords, revolutionary soldiers, middle started

by

the

nationalists

in

areas

they

wanted

to

secure

control

of

peasants, intellectuals and professionals, during

the

civil

war.

A

household

could

be

a

family

or

any

collective

revolutionary martyrs, industrial workers, unit

such

as

a

factory

dormitory

or

hospital

department.

Under

the

capitalists, rich peasants, poor and lowerCCP ,

in

addition

to

household

registration,

every

individual

was

given

middle peasants. a

class

their

for

as

label

loyalty

decades

the

Local

on

“good”,

These

because

“middle”,

labels

children

household.

ofcials

to

the

turned

This

China

neighbours,

show

parents.

kept

Those

party.

their

their

another

who

the

as

or

would

would

“bad”

on

determine

inherit

labelling

a

the

became

a

the

basis

of

person’s

same

key

fate

method

Write down your conclusions under each

class label.

status

of

conformity.

in

their

ranked

come

of

party

turned

to

to

head

ensuring

one

and

Every

CCP

belonging

their

street

“bad

had

of

a

of

allegiance

informed

to

into

hopeful

nation

reward.

to

the

ofcially

anything

classes”

were

of

informers.

Friends

regime.

Children

appointed

or

anyone

interrogated

People

denunciation

denounced

reported

denunciations were very high prole.

suspicious.

by

the

This was a key method of turning on

the “enemies” of the revolution. Many

“watchers”

In 1955, Hu Feng, an intellectual critical

police.

of the communist attack on writers, Vulnerable

classes

of

people

were

deemed

to

be

threats

to

the

revolution

was denounced in the People’s Daily. and

a

drain

on

resources.

and

prostitutes,

These

included

paupers,

beggars,

pickpockets

Mao personally wrote commentaries millions

of

refugees,

and

the

unemployed,

who

sought

against him. Hu Feng was tried in secret refuge

in

the

cities.

According

to

recent

archive

evidence

that

has

come

and imprisoned for being a counterto

light

in

China,

by

the

end

of

1949

some

4600

vagrants

in

Beijing

had

revolutionary until 1979. been

sent

to

re-education

centres

and

government

reformatories.

Labour camps

There

were

country.

laodong

at

when

By

the

out

of

into

and

the

held

in

Mao’s

with

camps

the

rule

camps

of

through

gulag

the

scattered

sometimes

“reform

Soviet

number

ten

torture

is

–

Great

were

of

political

altogether,

without

back

the

and

hunger

camps

some

each

25

year

to

that

during

people

could

Mao’s

died

the

The

in

an

forced

early

of

camps

in

remotest

be

of

at

were

the

of

–

CCP

swelled

labour.

2

million;

were

and

disappear

very

number

10

of

camps

the

hard

arrested

was

these

to

procedures

average

time

labour

days

hovered

camps

parts

abbreviation

prisoners

sentenced

Judicial

people

common.

the

number

the

Conditions

were

million

sent

the

laogai,

These

to

were

prisoners.

so

trial.

the

labour”.

dated

Terror

people

across

called

“counter-revolutionaries”

the

dispensed

or

the

height

many

1955,

nine

on

prison

network

gaizao,

modelled

and

many

This

of

million;

harsh

prisoners

during

camps.

131

3

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

Mass killings

The

new

quietly

In

the

regime’s

executed.

early

1950s,

underground

In

Shanghai

triads

and

Chinese secret societies, usually

executed.

criminal, involved in drugs, gambling

be

and prostitution.

Ofcial

killed

not

of

triads

and

in

a

Mao

and

per

were

and

issued

The

of

quotas

lowest

or

bosses–

imprisoned

kept

for

how

estimates

to

CCP

and

many

eager

come

were

the

campaign

were

recently

were

under

to

reach

light,

suggest

turned

a

90

on

000

thousand

or

but

–

spies,

interrogated.

about

per

or

surveillance.

“counter-revolutionaries”

(Canton),

killing

cadres

have

enemies

interrogated

criminal

Guangzhou

violent

many

gures

dangerous

thousands

agents,

recorded.

1.2

most

Others

even

many

gangs

were

should

surpass

killings

national

killing

them.

were

rate

thousand.

Total executions reported in six provinces, October 1950–November 1951

TOK discussion

Look at the gures in the table to the left.

Province

Total killed

Death rate (per 1,0 0 0)

Henan

56 700

1.67

Hubei

45 500

1.75

Hunan

61 400

1.92

Jiangxi

24 500

1.35

Guangxi

46 200

2.56

Guangdong

39 900

1.24

Total

301 800

1.69

How should a historian assess the reliability

of statistics?

Class discussion

Compare Mao’s use of terror to that of

other dictators.

Source: Repor t by Luo Ruiqing, Shaanxi, 23 August 1952

Land reform

Many

peasants

happened

from

in

landlords

bitterness”

wipe

out

Between

came

a

had

million

only

pace.

develop

a

because

state

succeeded

reforms

in

a

as

In

to

3

of

This

taking

across

the

for

more

used

were

tools

than

it

of

easier

over

for

and

was

Land

former

to

which

was

had

already

conscated

tenants.

humiliate,

By

grain

1954

than

were

communists.

to

There

party

ever

a

into

“Speak

punish,

feudal

and

was

sooner

had

cooperative;

that

resisted

cooperatives

hunger

and

Such

a

China

mutual-aid

requisition

cadres

as

No

into

before.

heralded

as

into

Those

locked

party

supplies.

high.

killed

livestock.

land.

were

the

were

organized

pooled

their

Villagers

countryside

the

their

landlords

their

land

were

reform,

1949.

were

peasants

ownership

monopoly

levies

among

million

it

land

class.

enemies.

made

of

before

violence

a

share

plot

class

arrival

China

1953

nominal

state

achievement

132

and

and

attack.

gained

the

of

redistributed

landlords

labelled

rapid

and

encouraged

peasants

were

2

in

parts

campaigns

the

under

teams,

they

rejoiced

many

grain

and

famine

militias

sweeping

remarkable

at

and

C H A P T E R

▲

3 . 2 :

M A o ’ s

C o n s o l i d A T i o n

o f

P o w E R ,

19 4 9 – 19 5 5

An alleged “landlord” facing a People’s Tribunal minutes before being executed by a shot in

the back in a village in Guangdong, July 1952

The one-par ty state

In

1949

These

parties

In

a

there

had

included

that

had

number

against

of

By

broken

1952,

Communist

and

that

the

party

They

held

a

members

responsible

oversaw

have

little

of

for

the

and

Party

and

was

that

the

parties

League

Kaishek’s

with

the

and

authorized

power

claim

that

the

P e o p l e ’s

national

process

so

making

a

that

that

In

nationalists.

with

parties

the

servants

for

people

were

of

the

party

ofcials

which

party

critical

people

elected

(NPC),

r e a l i t y,

anybody

campaigns

these

elections

Congress

p o l i c y.

China.

splinter

exist.

were

Chinese

in

and

mass

to

rested

government

the

National

of

Chiang

combined

CCP

of

level,

election

chance

from

claimed

much

the

political

Democratic

“counter-revolutionaries”,

the

deciding

separate

the

purges,

ofcials

local

ten

away

only

made

at

over

GMD,

political

The

were

Left

“imperialists”

removed.

nation.

been

the

of

was

ofcials

Mao

would

Politburo

This was an inner group of 20 or so

stand.

leading members of the CCP . Real

authority

Congress

of

the

1959,

This

simply

Party

and

which

was

rested

with

the

Politburo

rubber-stamped

would

conrmed

justied

on

also

his

the

hold

its

of

the

decisions.

the

ofce

supremacy

basis

and

in

of

the

National

Mao

Zedong

President

party

Democratic

People’s

and

of

was

the

Chairman

PRC

country

at

until

large.

Democratic centralism

A concept developed by Lenin and which

Mao adapted to China, which maintained

centralism.

that although all communists were The

Constitution

of

legal

of

1954

put

in

place

a

framework

for

the

development

revolutionaries, only the leaders were a

system

in

China.

A

committee

of

the

NPC

controlled

the

educated in the science of revolution. In appointment

of

judges

and

each

citizen

was

granted

the

right

to

a

public

China’s case, this meant accepting the trial.

Equality

was

guaranteed

before

the

law.

In

reality,

none

of

this

ultimate authority of Mao Zedong. was

practised

until

after

Mao’s

death.

133

3

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

Power struggles

Despite

the

paranoid

of

a

growth

and

number

of

feared

of

authority,

his

challenges,

●

the

impact

●

the

hardships

economy

his

that

of

the

caused

Zedong

was

under

grew

increasingly

threat.

This

was

because

including:

Korean

through

Mao

position

by

rapid

War

the

(1950–1953)

First

Five-Year

industrialization

Plan

to

boost

the

(1952–1956).

The Korean War, 1950–1953

At

the

end

occupied

effectively

nations

(North

Korea)

June

its

territory.

the

1950,

side

corner

advance:

North

15

—

of

the

into

Republic

Korea

South

Korea

two

at

Korea

led

the

by

38th

but

the

North

surrounding

South

in

parallel.

the

In

north,

1948,

Republic

of

two

Korea

Korea).

in

United

Korea

was

forces

People’s

Korea

the

Peninsula

Union

(South

South

an

attempt

States,

Korean

occupied

to

capital,

all

seize

intervened

but

a

Seoul,

small

Pusan.

Korean

September

1950

Hyesan Kanggye

CHINA

UN

Korean

Soviet

invaded

Koreans,

the

and

Democratic

of

Nations,

mid-September,

South

War,

south

communist

United

the

World

the

nation

the

North

By

in

the

and

The

fell.

of

Second

forces

formed

quickly

Maximum

the

US

dividing

In

on

1

of

by

counterattacks

Y

NORTH

2

UN

forces

led

by

US

KOREA

4

General

3

Douglas

Inchon

By

MacArthur

on

15

September

November,

most

of

invade

US

North

forces

Korea,

at

Sinuiju

1950.

Hamhung

occupy

including

Sin-ni its

capital.

Wonsan P’yongyang

3

Maximum

advance:

United

24

Nations

November

1950

SEA

OF

JAPAN

Sariwon

China

enters

6

war Haeju Kaesong

Ch’unch’on 4

China

24

enters

the

November

war:

1950,

UN

Seoul

forces

SOUTH 2 withdraw

into

the

Inchon

south.

KOREA

5

5

Maximum

North

Chinese/

Korean

advance: Ch’ungju

21

January

1951

Taejon

Stalemate

Chonju

6

The

war

years

continues

until

a

truce

for

is

two

more

EAST

CHINA

Taegu

SEA

announced 1

with

the

a

no

38th

man’s

land

parallel:

27

along

July

Kwangju

1953 70

Pusan

miles

JAPAN

▲

134

A timeline of the Korean War, 1950–1953

C H A P T E R

From

the

1910

defeat

until

of

“liberated”

38th

by

parallel

emerged

at

agreement

in

Soviet

the

end

over

1950

the

was

he

the

North

convinced

mission

Zhou

to

the

the

support

it

an

the

to

the

the

could

not

that

reach

systems

the

of

of

Kim

south

reunication

spread

President

of

was

under

Truman

communism

Council

communists

“imperialist

was

The

rivalry

regime

South.

Security

War

19 4 9 – 19 5 5

After

troops.

that

P o w E R ,

Rhee.

about

the

o f

north

opposing

ensured

bring

of

the

Cold

USSR

Syngman

(UN)

back

the

communist

containing

drive

as

the

invasion

of

of

and

War,

American

established

of

attempted

an

by

Truman

Nations

and

condemned

USA

occupation.

World

Because

leadership

with

United

south

they

President

the

policy

action

the

C o n s o l i d A T i o n

Japanese

Second

the

and

to

Koreans

to

take

Enlai

and

banner

committed

war,

M A o ’ s

under

the

peninsula.

the

under

of

and

wanted

north

communist

the

was

end

troops

of

Stalin

the

Korea

the

reunication

non-communist

In

at

divided

government.

Il-Sung

1945,

Japan

3 . 2 :

to

from

allow

the

a

and

UN

United Nations (UN)

An international organization formed in

South.

1945 with the aim of preventing conict

invasion”.

between nations. The

US

State

communist

the

idea

We

now

initiate

invasion

that

it.

In

beyond.

was

wanted

over

Kim

Once

38th

had

UN

stirred

by

efforts

arguing

invade

on

China.

Curtain

dark

the

of

Stalin’s

He

was

the

the

was

Taiwan

orchestrated

of

was

China

very

invasion,

to

pull

in

mind

in

the

1949,

monolithic

powerful.

he

the

campaigns

in

not

of

“lift

motives.

boycotting

PRC

invasion

would

had

pushed

by

that

prospect

action

send

and

in

a

was

not

be

of

he

the

as

the

the

It

nger”.

is

the

did

The idea that the spread of global

not

communism was controlled by Moscow.

People’s

in

and

likely

UN

Tibet

and

wanted

It

but

to

Stalin

Council

government

had

seems

that

Security

legitimate

South,

North

the

a

China’s

North

Koreans

Americans

Western

worked

Chinese

taking

Mao

should

“loss”

force

reunication

invasion

about

USA.

crushing

that

time

Mao

ally.

realized

The

to

the

support

this

the

and

indicated

that

Stalin

of

to

was

politics.

Mao

into

commanders

PLA

he

After

did

at

for

an

Stalin

monolithic

Mao

recognize

forces

north.

Mao

units

an

backed

a

priority

had

the

to

War

parallel,

pushing

as

the

that

Cold

the

in

refusal

Il-Sung

playing

(PLA)

have

that

Korea.

was

although

provoke

He

South

Mao’s

resolve

kept

to

their

China.

fact,

may

Stalin’s

Mao

that

Army

He

of

believed

communism

know

Liberation

test

Department

troops.

Lin

internal

Korea,

determined

victory

hard

to

that

Biao

USA

the

towards

unlikely

over

the

persuade

but

to

Mao

could

the

stop

military

concentrate

won

have

boundaries

to

North

his

wanted

enemies,

the

back

were

of

the

day

ambitions

the

to

Bamboo

Bamboo Cur tain

The border between communist China

crossed.

and its non-communist neighbours – Some

historians

have

suggested

that

by

sending

Chinese

troops

to

ght

the

similar to the notion of the Iron Cur tain. Americans,

was

certainly

with

the

tiger”.

By

the

war,

the

Zhou

Enlai

hoping

a

of

to

1950,

a

had

became

Korea,

an

of

troops

Once

an

of

the

a

nuclear

million

into

masses

preserve

technology

possibility

of

would

rise

germ

to

began

our

for

in

a

equipment.

nuclear

troops

During

a

stand-off

mere

under

the

He

“paper

the

course

of

the

million.

with

propaganda.

international

3

homes,

warfare

of

and

weapons

PLA

Korea.

spokesman

relentless

waging

the

threat

crossed

eloquent

by

Soviet

was

the

quarter

mobilize

aid

gain

There

Chinese

supported

headlines.

to

called

Dehuai

of

States

risk.

Mao

Deng

efforts

United

world

end

America,

campaign,

the

but

number

China,

“Resist

of

was

taking

USA,

command

In

Mao

a

campaign

defend

the

In

the

“Hate

1952,

Korea.

commission

had

America”

China

These

called

Nation”.

accused

claims

grabbed

conrmed

135

3

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

that

one

diseased

vole

had

been

found

in

Manchuria,

the

Chinese

CCP leaders propaganda

Zhou Enlai (周恩来) 1898–1976 became

Premier and Foreign Minister in 1949.

He was an able diplomat and was seen

as a moderating inuence during the

had

openly

weapons

south,

machine

considered

seemed

people

sources

of

went

into

the

use

plausible.

were

disease,

urged

of

Panic

to

namely

overdrive.

kill

ies,

the

atomic

swept

the

Since

the

“ve

General

bomb,

nation

pests”

mosquitoes,

the

MacArthur

use

and,

of

from

considered

eas,

biological

north

as

bedbugs

to

possible

and

rats.

Cultural Revolution. In

Lin Biao (林彪) 1907–1971 was a

May

about

1953,

the

a

resolution

American

use

in

of

Moscow

germ

concluded

warfare

were

that

the

PRC

allegations

false.

communist military leader who played a

key role in the CCP victory in the civil war.

The impact of the Korean War on China

He was instrumental in creating the cult

When

of Mao and directing the PL A during the

propaganda

Cultural Revolution. Lin died in a plane

Not

crash, following what may have been an

pushing

attempt to oust Mao.

persuaded

a

only

Ofcial

of

truce

could

UN

Anying.

the

UN

attack

The

as

on

China’s

Party

hid

Taiwan

cadres

suffered;

pressure

The

by

the

been

to

repay

worsened

a

Stalin

the

to

and

Chinese

take

Soviet

but

would

of

the

at

claim

home

troops’

it

was

action

in

experts

although

included

it

could

prestige

parallel,

severely

amounted

take

the

million,

that

Zedong

his

Mao

the

the

abroad.

in

who

were

oldest

and

people,

had

place.

number

gures

Taiwan

Chinese

he

rst

Zedong’s

defend

huge

success

also

put

these

a

and

son,

its

ruing

seat

out

on

any

PRC.

to

55

grain

through

would

UN

a

casualties

requisitioned

it

38th

representative

had

supplies

with

leadership

announced

by

Mao

bolstered

the

nearly

ofcial

expenses

their

only

USA

economy

military

to

calculated

at

1953,

credited

back

China.

the

be

in

this

communist

deaths

in

and

Mao

gures

issued

called

troops

the

Chinese

not

was

victory

fear

from

of

decade

for

pressure

as

a

cent

the

result

of

to

make

up

supplies

the

of

the

war.

government

peasants

starvation.

Soviet

on

hit

per

The

for

and

many

urban

losses

provided

In

1951,

spending.

peasants

economy

in

for

also

production.

the

war

The

effort

budget.

Mao and Stalin

Tensions had always existed between Mao and Stalin:

aid from Stalin was like “getting meat from the mouth of a

Stalin failed to provide suppor t to the CCP during the civil

tiger ”. Mao did not want to rely on any foreign power, and

war; there were also ideological disagreements between

eventually repaid this debt entirely.

Stalin and Mao. Stalin believed that the industrial workers, The ow of Chinese par ty members to the Soviet Union

not the peasants, should pioneer a Marxist revolution. and of Soviet exper ts to China was considerable. Soviet

Despite this, in 1949 Mao announced that China should technicians helped build roads, bridges, and industry

“lean to one side” and emulate what Stalin had achieved in across the country, while the CCP cadres learned about

the Soviet Union. political organization in the Soviet Union. The Sino-Soviet

Stalin and Mao signed the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Alliance in

Friendship Association spread the message throughout

1950. The USSR suppor ted China with a $300 million loan,

China: “ The Soviet Union’s Today is our Tomorrow.” Stalin’s

which allowed China to begin economic reform. This came

death in 1953 prompted a power struggle within the USSR,

at a high price because of the strict terms of interest levied

after which Khrushchev emerged as leader. Relations with

by Stalin on China. Mao later stated that getting nancial

China would signicantly alter after this.

Par ty purges

By

1954,

time,

party.

136

plans

to

Chairman

In

an

act

two

provincial

and

Rao

industrialize

Mao

grew

reminiscent

CCP

Shushi

leaders,

(饶漱石)

China

were

concerned

of

the

Gao

Futian

Gang

1900–1975

well

about

Incident

( 高岗)

in

under

potential

of

way.

rivals

1930,

1902–1954

Shandong.

He

At

the

Mao

in

same

within

the

turned

on

Manchuria,

claimed

that

these

C H A P T E R

party

ofcials

had

abused

their

3 . 2 :

positions

M A o ’ s

and

C o n s o l i d A T i o n

established

o f

P o w E R ,

19 4 9 – 19 5 5

“independent

Class discussion kingdoms”.

Gang

A

The

Central

eventually

witch-hunt

prison

camps

complex

but

Council

committed

followed

for

as

suicide

other

“treachery”

they

served

as

dismissed

and

a

and

leaders

both

Rao

Shushi

were

“splitting

reminder

to

from

party”.

party

positions.

languished

denounced

the

all

their

and

Mao’s

members

in

Gao

to threats to his authority within the par ty

to

motives

to

How similar or dierent was Mao’s reaction

prison.

sent

tow

compared to that of another dictator?

were

the

line.

Source skills

Historians

world

(too)

individual

into

the

of

the

to

the

…

worst

of

...

of

a

that

the

the

rst

tyrannies

in

Dikotter,

atthe

University

buying

Some

Age”

decade

the

Frank

the

the

regime

world.

“Golden

the

abstract

complicated

confused

with

revolution,

image

rest

But

sometimes

propaganda

tragedies

liberation

Period”

of

by

gleaming

projected

years

have

presented

or

of

all

so

called

of

the

Liberation

was

1

In

one

sending

to

an

early

grave

at

what

ways

and

bringing

misery

to

countless

Humanities

in

The

Tragedy

might

this

source

represent

a

view?

twentieth

least

5

In

the

light

of

this

source,

discuss

the

million challenges

civilians

of

Kong,

(2013).

revisionist

2 century,

Professor

Hong

Questions

the

“Honeymoon

Maoism

history

of

readily

of

carefully

have

a

too

Chair

facing

historians

investigating

the

more. early

years

of

the

PRC.

Mao’s grip on power, 1955–1976

By

1955,

own

Mao

stamp

industrial

to

glow

and

on

enormous

In

the

be

but

he

at

and

grew

peak

Mao

Yet

Mao

his

pace,

the

was

to

take

New

the

put

party.

China

on

the

about

his

having

in

also

fulll

paranoid

would

power,

authority

China

wanted

increasingly

ahead,

of

his

gained

stage.

upheaval.

decades

the

asserted

reform

international

political

the

to

country

agricultural

the

revolution,

China.

appeared

on

the

losing

power

appeared

cusp

ideals

of

his

to

his

As

of

the

grip

new

on

heights.

The registration system Types of registration system

Throughout

1955

the

power

of

the

CCP

over

the

population

increased.

documents The

state

took

more

control

of

the

countryside

to

requisition

more

grain.

Danwei: a permit to work More

peasants

owned

their

Where

there

peasants

were

plots

was

left

the

placed

of

land,

into

land

resistance,

countryside

cooperatives.

usage

the

for

was

militias

urban

Although

pooled

with

responded

areas

to

peasants

other

with

nominally

villagers.

violence.

supplement

their

Many

Hukou: a cer ticate entitling a family

to obtain accommodation

income

Dangan: a dossier held by local par ty

and

escape

famine;

in

all,

about

20

million

people

became

rural

migrants.

ocials containing personal details and

Attempts

by

the

State

Council

to

stem

the

ow

failed,

so

in

June

1955

records of every individual

Zhou

This

Enlai

was

before.

while

extended

like

It

the

household-registration

internal

essentially

urban

the

tied

residents

passport

millions

held

on

to

system

of

rural

certain

system

introduced

residents

rights

to

and

in

to

the

the

the

countryside.

USSR

decades

countryside,

entitlements.

Class discussion

Anyone

Discuss how the registration system was wanting

to

change

residence

needed

a

migration

certicate.

Ration

cards

able to strengthen CCP control of China. had

to

be

presented

at

local

grain

stores

where

peasants

were

registered.

How was this method used in any other Local

ofcials

kept

dossiers

on

every

individual

and

used

them

to

maintain

authoritarian state? political

and

social

control

over

the

Chinese

people.

The impact of de-Stalinization

In

1956,

attack

“cult

the

on

of

new

Stalin,

Soviet

who

personality”

leader

had

and

died

held

Nikita

three

him

Khrushchev

years

earlier.

responsible

for

launched

He

his

a

bold

denounced

brutal

Stalin’s

purges,

137

3

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

mass

deportations,

criticized

Stalin

collectivization.

central

and

demanding

and

his

“cult

1956,

CCP

of

his

in

style

maintain

it

cult

of

of

and

and

rural

Stalin

personality

and

had

be

In

also

pace

satellite

people

of

states

took

China,

a

to

there

considerable

interpreted

was

Mao

his

Soviet

reform.

thought

encouraged.

the

He

reckless

Hungary,

agricultural

Zedong

members.

the

in

the

were

areas.

easily

his

party

across

economic

and

could

leadership

loyal

Poland

and

and

Mao

leadership

In

of

reforms

ripples

denouncing

that

to

The

sent

urban

personality”

charter.

from

saw

references

collective

political

speech

who

torture

Europe.

protests

Khrushchev’s

the

agricultural

speech

eastern

strikes

Mao,

his

His

streets

on

and

for

as

reforms.

were

perceived

In

to

from

and

divert

failures

if

impact

attack

on

September

removed

denounced

needed

an

the

the

shift

criticism

he

was

to

away

going

to

control.

The “Hundred Flowers” campaign

In

early

1957,

hundred

in

the

party

leading

too

and

party

accused

far,

with

schools

the

the

anti-rightist movement

then

launched

A series of campaigns from 1957 to

both

intellectuals

1959, in which critics of Mao were

Xiaoping

labelled “rightists” and endured public

were

denunciation and humiliation.

sent

to

the

targeted

supporters,

conform

the

to

Historians

Deng Xiaoping (邓小平)

Flowers

as

to

the

party

the

countryside

loyal

to

led

party.

Mao’s

debate

rst,

and

lacking

campaign

only

and

More

way

to

to

than

Even

his

open

but

under

on

force

half

a

one

of

biggest

critics,

people

or

members

Mao’s

denunciation

He

Deng

executed

for

gone

critics.

million

were

Critics

had

criticisms.

responsibility

escape

it

his

his

a

then

high-ranking

Enlai,

let

criticism

attack.

Fearing

their

suicide,

Zhou

confess

bloom,

mild

turned

redact

committed

weeds”.

to

was

came

realism.

movement

to

owers

encouraged

criticism

re-education.

forced

The

Mao

Zedong,

campaign.

Many

for

hundred

members,

“poisonous

was

a

Mao

anti-rightist

“rightists”.

were

reform

halt

and

( 邓小平)

labelled

At

even

corruption

a

the

and

“Let

contend”,

country.

of

called

slogan,

thought

gures,

party

Mao

the

of

most

slowing

was

to

wishes.

the

reasons

why

Mao

launched

the

Hundred

campaign:

1904–1997 ●

A revolutionary of the Long March who

Jung

Chang,

deliberate

became Secretary General between 1954

were

and 1966, Deng was purged in the Cultural

part

easily

of

a

in

her

trick

by

2005

Mao.

exposed

wider

ploy

so

to

biography

By

that

of

allowing

he

control

could

the

Mao,

open

then

party

argues

that

criticism,

root

and

them

wider

it

was

Mao’s

out.

a

critics

This

was

society.

Revolution of 1966 and again in 1976 ●

Lei

Feignon,

a

US

scholar,

has

revised

this

view,

by

arguing

that

after the Tiananmen Incident, but he rose Mao’s

motives

were

more

pragmatic.

He

argues

that

the

Hundred

to power in 1978 and remained leader of Flowers

campaign

was

Mao’s

attempt

to

encourage

criticism

against

China until his retirement in 1992. the

bureaucracy.

inefciencies

●

Jonathan

to

He

be

Spence,

was

against

publicly

a

widely

its

growing

inuence

and

wanted

its

identied.

respected

authority

on

China,

argues

that

Class discussion

Discuss

whether

Mao

was

by

ideology,

pragmatism,

for

power

launching

driven

or

a

the

Hundred

the

party

the

his

position

pace

of

industrial

the

and

result

of

confusion

agricultural

within

reform.

motives,

in

the

by

party

rooting

and

the

out

opposition,

wider

country.

Mao

His

had

strengthened

leadership

was

further

campaign. bolstered

1956.

138

the

was

Hundred his

Flowers

over

campaign

thirst Whatever

by

Flowers

by

This

Khrushchev’s

served

to

justify

military

his

clampdown

decision

to

on

suppress

dissent

the

in

Hungary

opposition.

in

C H A P T E R

3 . 2 :

M A o ’ s

C o n s o l i d A T i o n

o f

P o w E R ,

19 4 9 – 19 5 5

The Purge of Peng Dehuai

In

1959,

Lushan,

Mao’s

Peng

openly

about

reform

(see

eventually

time

for

None

the

the

In

leadership

criticism

famine

the

party

fact,

and

with

came

under

( 彭德怀),

Great

claim

other

did.

position

Dehuai

in

Leap

lives

the

of

denounced

and

At

on

to

speak

out

Peng

as

purged

a

of

150).

people.

happened

party

caused

page

million

a

Minister

countryside

40

opposite

treason

threat.

PRC’s

Forward

members

the

the

by

against

from

famine

was

an

Mao’s

the

Mao

would

opportune

reforms.

delegates

troublemaker.

him

in

spoke

agricultural

The

This

when

gathering

Defence,

praised

Mao’s

equated

Peng’s

party.

The Tibetan Uprising of 1959

In

1959,

Tibet

invasion

of

The

famine

and

millions

uprising

Tibetan

the

of

faced

the

public.

that

Tibetan

issued

been

of

he

had

was

The

with

attack

Dalai

were

and

that

half

Panchen

fair

and

and

Lama

on

the

per

Lama

accurate

to

mass

northern

mentioning

In

cent

met

1962

of

the

had

arrested.

the

in

Zhou

of

its

India,

stage

the

The

control

and

for

Dalai

and

Panchen

it

Enlai

Lama

many

Lama

Mao

later

Panchen Lama

had

denied

admitted

policy

of

was

Tibetan

population

prison.

Chinese

PLA

national

arrests.

Tibet

Tibetan

died

portrayal

in

the

Tibet

the

intensied

settlement

since

underground.

reached

international

from

them

had

and

state

Ever

forced

authorities

ed

banned.

of

reforms

the

Chinese

20

been

suppression

banned

were

that

occupation.

had

Chinese

campaign

practices

the

a

The

encouraged

claiming

imprisoned

and

under

life.

Chinese

agricultural

people

Tibetans

report

report

Mao’s

would

CCP

religious

a

claims

the

The

by

the

resistance

starvation.

came

way

independence.

in

against

Tibetan

Tibetan

religion

here

up

the

caused

Tibetan

from

rose

1950,

in

Highest ranking Lama after the Dalai Lama.

the

that

Tibet.

The Cultural Revolution, 1966–1976

In

1962,

Mao

Zed o ng

the

knowledge

the

Great

Secretary

tha t

Famine.

Deng

s l ip pe d

hi s

into

the

r ep utatio n

P r e s i de nt

X i a o p i ng

L iu

we r e

ba c kg r ou n d

ha d

bee n

Sha oqi

( 刘少奇 )

instr uct e d

to

of

the

da m a g ed

and

s ave

the

as

pa r ty,

a

CCP

in

r e su l t

of

Genera l

cou n t rys ide

Liu Shaoqi (刘少奇)

1898–1969

an d

Liu was a revolutionary who succeeded stop

the

famine;

the i r

s up por te r s

r e ver s ed

c o ll e c t iviz at i on

in

Ga n s u

Mao as President in 1959. He was purged and

Qinghai.

The

g r o w ing

pop ul ar it y

of

Li u

a nd

Deng

w it h i n

the

as Mao’s successor during the Cultural party

became

a

thr e a t

a nd

Ma o

be g a n

to

r eg r et

r et r e at i n g

i nt o

th e

Revolution in 1968 and died in harsh political

background .

In

in

conditions in 1969.

1966,

order

to

reassert

his

authority

over

the

Chinese

government

Chen Boda (陈伯达) and

the

country,

Mao

launched

what

became

known

as

the

Great

1904–1989 Proletarian

Cultural

orchestrated

destruction

considered

to

return

by

and

Mao,

the

would

economic

disloyal

to

Revolution.

to

the

forefront

This

result

chaos.

in

It

the

of

CCP

political

genocide,

led

principles

of

mass

to

as

class

further

the

upheaval,

war,

purges

revolution

the

and

undisputed

A leading communist intellectual, Chen

cultural

of

helped Mao carve out the Maoist ideology.

those

enabled

leader

of

Mao

China.

The Little Red Book

In

the

early

compiled

The

1960s,

the

original

compilation

Lin

“Little

title

of

was

the

Biao,

Red

one

Book”

Quotations

thoughts

of

in

most

loyal

supporters,

collaboration

Mao’s

with

Chen

from

and

Chairman

sayings

of

Mao

Mao

Zedong

since

the

Boda

and

it

1920s.

( 陈伯达).

was

a

The

139

3

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

preface

read:

and

according

“Study

Chairman

Mao’s

writings,

follow

his

teachings,

L TA

Research and communication act

to

his

instructions.”

Lin

Biao

made

The

Little

Red

Book

skills central

to

Find a translated version of The Little Red

selling

Book on the Internet. It is available on the

Zedong

Marxists.org website.

became

1

over

as

a

or signicant quotes. Put together a

presentation so that you can share

your quotes with the rest of your group.

Annotate and discuss your ideas about

the meaning behind each quote.

Why do you think Mao’s ideas in

The Little Red Book were so appealing

to its readers?

750

cult

million

leader,

vital

of

point

PLA

copies

was

of

soldiers

a

and

it

throughout

social

reference

also

China.

necessity

in

became

in

resolving

It

a

secular

enshrined

schools

and

at

bible,

Mao

home,

and

disputes.

The Purge of Wu Han

In

of

1965

Wu

were

Lin

Han

The

play

and

told

was

the

emperor.

of

Biao

Peng

about

launched

( 吴晗 ),

triggered

by

set

in

series

Han’s

of

a

the

era

court

attacks

was

The

of

the

Song

who

play

Mao’s

a

at

of

of

deed

as

blacken

Hai

the

and

Rui

attacks

from

Ofce.

(960–1279)

of

of

a

Mao’s

revealing

attacks,

name

The

orders

criticism

the

the

Mao.

dynasty

reforms

Distraught

to

critical

Dismissal

the

ofcial

opposing

Famine.

of

who

play,

interpreted

for

Great

a

playwright

Wu

story

Dehuai

a

during

Maoists

the

suicide

3

training

Select a chapter from The Little Red

Book and pick out two memorable

2

the

Wu

the

Han

cruel

dismissal

truth

committed

1969.

Should The Little Red Book be

described as faith? How valid is

Power struggles in the CCP secular faith as a way of knowing?

The

Wu

Maoists

(江青),

Han

on

a

left

former

hardliner.

of

affair

the

She

highlighted

of

the

actress

was

a

uncompromising

in

dominant

against

This powerful faction of the CCP was

the

responsible for implementing the

attack

harshest and most radical policies of

that

the Cultural Revolution. The Gang was

their

made up of Jiang Qing and her three

“counter-revolutionaries”

Mao’s

opponents.

extreme

on

the

they,

along

positions

with

for

Liu

key

their

of

and

Qing

was

and

and

disloyalty

had

the

Mao’s

one

wife,

the

of

the

should

a

Forum,

Gang

be

revolution.

Qing

fervent

a

group

measures

Jiang

Xiaoping,

CCP .

Jiang

was

toughest

Forum.

Deng

Mao’s

within

prominence.

Shanghai

writers,

to

in

the

Shanghai

Shaoqi

artists

in

also

advocated

the

emerging

growing

gure

who

Jiang

members

moderates

divisions

were

Shanghai

radicals

Gang of Four

most

the

party

of

Four,

launched

an

demanding

removed

The

from

targeting

of

begun.

staunchest allies: Zhang Chunquiao The

Shanghai

Forum

argued

that

the

PLA

should

root

out

all

those

who

( 张春桥 ), Yao Wenyyuan (姚文元 ), and were

“taking

the

capitalist

road”.

In

1966

this

began

with

the

purge

of

Wang Honwen (王洪文 ). the

Group

mayor

Central Cultural Revolution Group (CCRG)

This 17-member body included the Gang

of Four and would play a key role in

directing the Cultural Revolution.

a

of

of

Five,

Beijing.

subcommittee

would

play

within

that,

of

as

The

of

key

set

of

moderate

Central

the

part

in

these

steps

proletariat

Revolution

had

were

into

taken,

the

ofcials

Cultural

Politburo

that

led

been

Mao

of

Peng

the

up

to

Zhen

Group

in

May

dened

and

threatened

dictatorship

set

soon

revisionists”

they

by

Revolution

had

purges.

“counter-revolutionary

unless

the

a

a

the

notied

“turn

the

bourgeoisie”.

( 彭真),

the

(CCRG ),

1966,

enemy

the

CCP

dictatorship

The

Cultural

begun.

The events of the Cultural Revolution

The

purges

when

Lin

within

Biao,

universities

abandoned

to

In

July

1966

forefront

chairman

140

of

ignite

their

revolutionary

the

acting

became

Mao’s

students

classes

and

part

of

a

instructions,

and

radical

attacked

national

used

teachers.

those

who

movement

poster

campaigns

Students

had

strayed

and

in

teachers

from

the

path.

Mao

made

Chinese

was

party

on

a

timely

politics.

photographed

In

a

and

extraordinary

carefully

swimming

staged

across

comeback

event,

the

the

Yangzi

to

the

73-year-old

River.

This

C H A P T E R

was

a

river

and

symbolic

was

choice

regarded

newsreels

as

across

because,

a

life

the

in

force.

country

3 . 2 :

M A o ’ s

Chinese

This

and

C o n s o l i d A T i o n

tradition,

powerful

inspired

the

image

nation’s

lled

national

o f

P o w E R ,

19 4 9 – 19 5 5

greatest

newspapers

Jiang Qing (江青) 1914–1991

Both Mao Zedong and Jiang Qing left their

adulation.

spouses to marry each other in 1938. In

August

1966,

Mao

called

on

members

of

the

CCP

to

renew

the

class

Mao allowed Jiang to enter the political struggle

and

remove

revisionists

from

the

party.

He

relegated

Liu

Shaoqi

fray in 1959 because she was a potent in

the

party

ranking

and

promoted

Lin

Biao

to

second

in

command.

advocate of Maoist ideas. Jiang would Effectively,

he

had

nominated

Lin

Biao

as

his

successor.

become a brutal enforcer of cultural

reform and she led ferocious attacks L TA

Thinking skills

against “counter-revolutionaries”. After

Mao’s death in 1976, Jiang and her A number of factors help to explain why Mao launched the Great Proletarian

associates were blamed for the worst Cultural Revolution. Some of these factors relate to Mao’s ideology and others to

excesses of the Cultural Revolution his thirst for power.

and put on trial. Jiang was sentenced Discuss each of the statements below and decide whether they link to Mao’s to death, after claiming that, “I was Mao ideology, his thirst for power, or even both. Zedong’s dog. I bit whomever he told

1

Mao believed in permanent revolution. He feared that the CCP had been

me to bite.” The death sentence was

infected by “neo-capitalism” and would cease to serve a genuine purpose

commuted to life imprisonment in 1983.

unless the par ty and country were cleansed of the enemy.

2

Jiang committed suicide in 1991.

The downfall of Nikita Khrushchev in the USSR in 1964 – par tly for economic

failures – concerned Mao, who feared that the same could happen to him.

3

Mao thought that Khrushchev and his successors had betrayed the revolution

by encouraging warmer relations (detente) with the West.

4

Mao wanted to eliminate all forms of opposition and preserve his own position.

5

Mao wanted to toughen up younger par ty members and make them hardened

revolutionaries.

6

Class discussion

Mao built the revolution with the suppor t of the peasants. He despised

Discuss why you think the youth of China

intellectuals and bureaucrats and saw them as a threat.

held Mao in such high regard.

Rallies

On

18

Chen

August

Boda

mostly

Book

the

in

and

red

their

thousand

then

claimed

teens

rising

years!”

Mao

the

cult

that

a

did

of

mass

place

chanted

sun

months.

1966,

took

in

and

A

the

twenties,

in

need

had

was

and

seven

to

be

been

organized

Square.

waved

worship

east”

further

not

demonstration

Tiananmen

slogans

Mao

Mao

in

of

Over

their

Mao,

rallies

present

took

for

cultivated

“remoulding

the

so

as,

Mao,

place

all

by

of

of

may

over

them

of

the

Biao

Little

live

is

for

a

following

because

Lin

Red

Zedong

you

the

and

people,

The

“Mao

effectively.

souls

Lin

million

copies

such

“Chairman

a

by

Biao

people”.

The Red Guards and the destruction of the “Four Olds”

On

1

August

University

to

galvanizing

August

1966,

the

rally,

Mao

“bombard

young

Lin

●

old

ideas

●

old

culture

●

old

customs

●

old

habits.

Biao

Zedong

the

to

had

urged

headquarters”.

target

the

identied

the

By

“enemies”

“four

olds”

students

at

Qinghua

doing

this,

of

revolution.

for

the

the

young

Mao

to

was

At

the

attack:

141

3

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

The

youth

follow

the

were

these

revolution

foreign

rising

enthused

orders.

and

its

humiliation

to

new

by

Many

leader

and

the

felt

call

that

who

and

they

had

oppression.

would

were

liberated

The

cult

fanatically

defending

China

of

Mao

from

was

heights.

Source skills

Read

the

following

self-imposed

When

Chairman

million

Red

hormonal

tears

and

the

the

extract

from

an

author

writing

from

exile:

Mao

Guards

reaction.

moment

waved

wept

Later

he

his

their

on

we

appeared

revolutionary

tides

of

hand

hearts

were

on

the

the

at

out

Tiananmen,

as

if

by

conditioned

screen.

world

rose

He

to

burst

was

and

a

some

into

divine,

fell

at

his

command.

Source:

of

Suola

Hawaii

Liu,

Chaos

and

All

That,

p15.

1994.

University

Press.

Question

With

reference

to

the

Cultural

Revolution

and

the

cult

of

The Tiananmen Square demonstration, August 1966

▲

Mao,

Devout

young

how

far

people,

can

it

be

mobilized

argued

by

Mao,

that

emotions

formed

distort

themselves

reality?

into

a

L TA

Research and communication paramilitary

social

movement

they

called

the

Red

Guards.

The

Red

skills Guards

Research the propaganda posters of the

of

the

Cultural Revolution. You could use the

sites.

following website:

any

denounced

Confucian

They

sign

took

of

their

past

control

bourgeois

intellectuals

by

were

parents,

and

destroying

of

public

thinking.

denounced

smashed

thousands

transport

and

of

and

the

Schoolteachers,

as

rightists

and

tore

up

historic

media,

university

forced

any

and

remnants

cultural

condemning

staff,

publicly

to

and

confess

http://chineseposters.net/themes/ their

class

crimes.

cultural-revolution-campaigns.php.

The

Ministry

of

Public

Security

ofcially

sanctioned

the

actions

of

Design a presentation to show how

the

Red

Guards

and

also

provided

them

with

information

on

the

ve

propaganda was used to direct the

categories

of

targets:

Cultural Revolution. Make sure that you

include the following:

1

●

landlords

●

rich

●

reactionaries

●

bad

●

rightists.

Annotate a copy of your chosen peasants

poster. Look at its use of colour

and other symbolism to reveal its

meaning.

2

3

elements

Identify the slogans in the poster.

Consider why posters like this wielded The

Cultural

Revolution

touched

the

remotest

parts

of

China.

Millions

so much power. would

lives

142

be

tortured

irreparably

or

beaten

damaged.

to

death

and

many

more

would

have

their

C H A P T E R

3 . 2 :

M A o ’ s

C o n s o l i d A T i o n

o f

P o w E R ,

19 4 9 – 19 5 5

Class discussion

Discuss why you think Mao enlisted the

young to carry out the Cultural Revolution.

L TA

Research skills

A student who had attended the rally at

Tiananmen on 18 August 1966 became

disenchanted with the movement and

horried by its excesses. She later wrote

a letter to Mao, in which she said:

The Cultural Revolution is not a mass

movement. It is one man with the gun

manipulating the masses.

Source: Jung Chang and Jon Halliday,

Mao, The Unknown Story, p547. 2005.

Jonathan Cape.

Why is it dicult for historians to nd out

about opposition to the Cultural Revolution?

The caption on this poster from around 1966 reads: “Hold high the great red banner

▲

of Mao Zedong Thought to wage the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution to the end –

Revolution is no crime, to rebel is justied”

The attacks on Deng Xiaoping, Liu Shaoqi and other moderates

Even

of

those

the

Red

who

Guards.

demonstration

Liu

Shaoqi

them

Liu

as

and

his

were

wife

denounced

in

connement.

from

As

Kang

at

Mao’s

as

lives

1966,

Mao

let

following

He

Jiang

Sheng

Lin

He

it

the

to

the

CCP

following

be

line.

became

another

known

party

within

the

died

The

as

his

upper

Jiang

in

to

that

Wall

targets

Red

Deng

Guard

Xiaoping

posters

the

CCP

head

him

the

echelons

and

of

and

denounced

denied

and

threw

and

the

secret

CCP .

Sheng

a

put

Deng

treatment

into

was

solitary

labour”

Xiaoping’s

inuence

by

the

police.

key

Mao

of

in

son

paralyzed.

the

the

and

series

Deng

“corrective

bolstered

was

in

medical

then

removed,

PRC’s

residence

crimes

connement.

perform

were

Kang

his

permanently

were

ruthlessness

Qing,

to

Guards

They

of

and,

Guards

sent

leaving

government

confess

solitary

Red

Red

increased.

( 康生)

their

imprisoned

eventually

window,

for

from

forced

jeering

1969.

Qing

Biao,

then

was

by

was

in

bidding,

against

dragged

was

public

moderates

of

city

their

October

eventually

upstairs

and

purges

Liu

Province

an

the

Biao

not

sessions”.

diabetes,

Jiangxi

In

Beijing,

were

beaten.

“struggle

his

in

devoted

revisionists.

publicly

for

had

He

of

was

instigator

retreated

informed

the

Lin

appointment

chosen,

of

from

Red

the

the

Guards

143

3

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

of

the

the

ministers

trial

of

murdered

the

and

ofcials

Gang

more

of

than

marked

Four

half

a

in

out

1980,

million

it

for

was

CCP

intimidation

stated

that

and

the

attack.

Red

At

Guards

ofcials.

The Cultural Revolution abroad

In

1967,

Chinese

countries

unrest

in

in

the

Chinese

retaliate.

bombs,

no

China.

British

Despite

to

the

British

were

Mao

colony

terrorists

the

mass

militants

outside

behind

wanted

of

Hong

destabilize

death

of

demonstration

against

He

region

not

react

British

over

Zhao

force

and

with

in

30

anti-imperialist

urged

to

policemen

did

attacks

provoke

Kong.

the

ve

authorities

violent

to

the

the

Enlai

to

British

to

explosion

hostility,

so

send

of

160

there

was

rule.

The PL A and the Red Guards’ move to the countryside

By

1968,

Civil

it

strife

competing

had

been

1966

so

appeared

in

China

over

their

gravely

that

take

who

and

over

then

affected;

to

Orders

how

the

part

government.

The

peasants

learn

and

population.

dignity

save

the

they

1967

began

Zedong.

and

to

a

join

from

great

question

in

Mao.

the

with

had

and

youth

were

the

Red

hardships

did

believe

likely

that

anarchy

over

12

the

support

for

the

to

of

young

from

the

and

to

the

go

and

per

–

to

the

among

the

cent

the

of

learn

necessary

people

towns

order

of

should

order.

the

was

80

also

hardships

situation

this

live

privilege

was

(PLA)

Guards

mountains

control

by

since

Army

Red

restore

the

even

the

the

endured

and

closed

“counter-

followed

under

those

been

Liberation

up

another,

production

from

campaign

million

their

for

life

hand.

one

attack

they

Guards

chaos

–moved

idealism

of

still

that

unprepared

their

of

and

go

which

of

on

Industrial

People’s

“to

out

turned

Guards

campaign

urged

resentment

decline

getting

universities

Red

for

ease

graduates

were

were

Guards

to

and

the

given

The

is

1972,

Many

devotion

the

it

Red

“counter-revolutionaries”

Mao

school

(Their

eventual

about

Guards

the

schools

campaign

areas

secondary

countryside.

of

labour”,

urban

Between

and

of

as

rebellious

Although

“the

Red

were

for

villages”.

China’s

of

could

hunt

became

down

reveals

this

the

level

students

revolutionaries”.

to

that

increased

to

students

into

they

the

faced

goodwill

of

contribute

and

Mao

to

an

Party.)

The “Cleansing the class ranks” campaign, 1968–197 1

The

PLA

carried

out

revolutionaries”

of

Four,

played

Committees

capitalism.

its

with

a

key

were

responsibilities

violent

role

in

their

established

Hundreds

of

zeal.

for

The

rooting

CCRG,

campaign

across

thousands

China

of

to

to

out

with

“counter-

Jiang

“cleanse

remove

Qing’s

the

any

Gang

class

forms

people

were

tortured

control,

even

though

and

ranks”.

of

killed.

Class discussion Mao

left

Jiang

and

the

extremists

in

he

still

had

How responsible was Mao for the Cultural the

authority

to

rein

in

the

violence.

Revolution? Are some dictators more

responsible for causing violent upheaval

than others?

Why did Mao leave the direction of the

Cultural Revolution in the hands of other

par ty members?

The Fall of Lin Biao, 197 1–1972

By

to

the

set

health

began.

party.

early

in.

disillusionment

still

too

increasingly

Mao

Lin,

1970s,

was

was

criticism.

144

It

became

Mao’s

dangerous

in

question,

paranoid

nominated

Although

it

is

with

about

a

to

to

power

Lin

successor,

difcult

the

openly

nd

Cultural

oppose

struggle

Biao’s

was

Revolution

Mao

for

inuence

ordered

information

to

but

the

as

succession

within

submit

on

the

began

his

the

to

self-

circumstances

C H A P T E R

of

his

and

downfall,

leaked

USSR

not

it

reluctantly

to

by

Zhou

Enlai,

plane.

known

appears

plotted

His

Lin

this

Lin

remove

Biao

plane

whether

that

to

an

M A o ’ s

feared

Mao

made

crashed

was

3 . 2 :

a

in

that

from

C o n s o l i d A T i o n

his

desperate

Mongolia,

accident

or

life

power.

was

under

Once

bid

to

killing

the

on

P o w E R ,

to

was

the

board.

It

is

sabotage.

L TA

The decline of the Cultural Revolution

The

story

of

Lin

Biao’s

fall

was

not

19 4 9 – 19 5 5

threat

plot

escape

all

o f

reported

until

1972.

The

news

Thinking skills

reports

Did Mao’s style of leadership mark a claimed

that

the

former

PLA

helmsman

was

a

traitor

and

a

spy

who

had

change with China’s past rulers or did conspired

against

the

country.

The

impact

was

widely

felt

in

China

and

Mao provide a sense of continuity with people

began

to

question

such

a

dramatic

shift

in

the

reputation

of

a

China’s past? man

As

who

the

resume

loyal

had

He

his

had

been

was

met

Zhou

as

a

Mao

foiled

enlisted

he

and

to

position

moderates

Deng

that

so

who

increased.

and

favour

the

been

minister

prestige

exile

had

a

“the

Lin’s

his

as

ally

of

fury

the

plot

remove

Mao,

Xioaping

Cultural

the

pragmatist

to

Secretary.

the

by

revolution.

Deng

Party

victim

with

and

Gang

It

to

was

Zhou

return

now

in

Revolution.

of

Four,

who

Enlai’s

from

Deng’s

The

rise

of

denounced

clique”.

The Tiananmen Incident

In

1976

Square,

policies

with

Zhou

a

took

the

1976,

died

after

and

years

came

paramount

leader

to

crowd

of

was

failing

By

the

Deng

of

At

his

support

dispersed

1978,

of

Zhao’s

after

wait

on

Deng

Tiananmen

confrontations

Incident

Deng

Zedong

was

in

moderating

bloody

Tiananmen

to

Mao

Four

memorial

Xiaoping.

China

health,

Gang

end.

in

blamed

southern

the

an

of

cancer.

dismissed

in

ensued,

Revolution

lung

Politburo

province

that

of

demonstration

The

The

agitators”

Guangdong

struggle

place.

police.

“rightist

In

Enlai

large-scale

on

retreated

to

events.

died.

removed

In

and

Xiaoping

the

the

would

power

Cultural

emerge

as

China.

L TA

Self-management skills

1

Create a diagram to summarize the Cultural Revolution. Include the following

headings: Aims; Methods; Targets; Victims; Instigators; and Results.

2

Make a list of the dierent opponents to Mao’s policies and rule. How did Mao

silence and eliminate his opposition?

3

Produce a visual summary or spider diagram to show the methods that

Mao used to consolidate his dictatorship. Consider legal methods, force,

leadership, censorship and propaganda, reform, treatment of opposition and

foreign policy.

Mao’s foreign policy

Mao

on

wanted

the

world

communist

repeat

far

of

from

section

China

stage.

to

revolution

the

explores

or

would

to

restore

far

did

his

of

retain

Mao’s

weakened

as

show

aggression

China

how

recognition

wanted

imperialist

consistent,

strengthened

gain

He

a

the

powerful

Chinese

national

the

its

pride

past.

independent

people

and

approach

to

prevent

Although

independence

relations

as

that

his

a

with

state

the

any

policies

nation.

other

were

This

countries

position.

145

3

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

The caption of this Chinese poster from 1967 reads: “Long live the Invincible Marxism,

▲

Leninism and Mao Zedong Thought!”

The Bandung Conference, 1955

In

April

1955,

nations, L TA

Thinking skills

representatives

including

role

of

China,

and

the

their

and

decolonization.

from

gathered

countries

China

in

29

in

the

played

governments

Bandung,

Cold

an

War,

important

of

Asian

Indonesia,

economic

role

in

and

to

African

discuss

peace

development,

the

conference:

by

Consider the message of the poster above. 1955,

in

the

aftermath

of

Stalin’s

death,

Mao

appeared

to

be

the

leader

of

Why do you think foreign policy was the

communist

world

and

countries

that

were

non-aligned

in

the

Cold

War

essential to Mao’s leadership of China? recognized

By

the

world

him

1970s

their

Mao

because

improved,

as

was

China’s

but

it

leader

less

the

world

concerned

status

would

on

take

on

the

years

stage.

with

world

for

matters

stage

China

to

in

had

get

the

developing

dramatically

to

this

point.

The Sino–Soviet rift, 1958–1976

Mao’s

alliance

strengthening

had

emerged

weakened

Flowers

with

Parties

in

Mao

was

retaliate,

support.

PRC

Mao

1961,

146

for

Zhou

of

China’s

pursued

In

the

and

were

the

played

on

the

the

as

of

to

USA

for

accused

point

1958.

the

Hundred

not

that

Communist

nd

In

that

year,

prepared

offering

to

their

reckless.

against

the

He

a

failed

in

the

improved

Conference

sides

Khrushchev

Stalin

of

isolation.

Soviets

severed

Chinese

of

Union’s

Beijing

in

Nikita

turmoil

response,

CCP

policies

part

revolution,

both

visited

blaming

relations

the

the

at

when

a

1956,

Soviet

subsequent

Taiwan.

down,

to

the

Xiaoping

denounced

Enlai

of

played

By

denunciations

betraying

increased

propaganda

his

contributed

and

with

War

power.

and

fearful

Deng

backed

Diplomatic

when

Korean

Khrushchev

war

deliberately

Sino–Soviet

and

by

when

Khrushchev

Yugoslavia.

of

West

and

was

Tensions

braced

so

Mao

argued

even

the

successor

revisionism

1957.

agreement,

in

consolidation

position

the

of

brilliantly

Stalin

Stalin’s

Mao’s

Khrushchev

The

as

Campaign.

relations

was

with

Mao’s

the

at

USSR

the

delegation

bitter

in

Albania

Moscow

walked

recriminations

and

Conference

out.

Fierce

between

C H A P T E R

both

countries,

stage.

the

By

leader

the

the

of

to

the

Leonid

the

of

threat

the

Deng

the

C o n s o l i d A T i o n

humiliate

and

produced

Soviets,

to

Mao

of

the

the

two

lowest

point

sparked

war

lasted

Xiaoping,

other

o f

on

powers

until

the

Mao’s

a

on

were

P o w E R ,

the

19 4 9 – 19 5 5

world

would

withdrawn

hydrogen

his

bomb

was

the

in

willingness

Khrushchev’s

relations

war

ended

adopted

rst

under

in

a

advisers

its

announced

deteriorate

nuclear

rift

to

which

experts

China

The

was

M A o ’ s

be

revolution.

incident

of

jockeyed

stake

Soviet

continued

Sino–Soviet

and

all

this,

alarm

minor

successor,

side

at

worldwide

Brezhnev.

relatively

The

each

really

Despite

Relations

Only

as

was

mid-1960s,

PRC.

and,

it.

What

3 . 2 :

in

from

1964

to

use

successor,

1969,

when

Sino–Russian

a

border.

conict.

death

more

in

1976.

tolerant

His

eventual

approach

to

the

USSR

West.

Relations with the US

The

CCP

western

during

victory

the

Korean

heightened

during

the

powers

for

of

by

and

as

decades

attack

China,

on

Mao

He

This

above

and

a

its

Tensions

of

the

feared

devised

was

with

traditional

campaigns

support

always

China.

Line”.

both

tension

Revolution.

diplomatic

Stalin,

“Third

of

Anti-American

Cultural

and

Like

an

the

across

the

moral

War.

in

America.

a

plan

below

intensied

were

USA ’s

that

the

enemies

western

defensive

for

a

vast

ground,

to

strategy

network

withstand

bombardment.

steered

tennis

China

team

on

to

a

new

play

in

course

China.

in

1971,

Zhou

when

Enlai

and

he

invited

Henry

the

US L TA

table

War

launch

known

ushered

enemy,

China’s

fortications

Mao

1949

Vietnam

would

China,

heavy

of

imperialist

Kissinger

Thinking and communication

skills steered

By

negotiations,

warming

USSR

as

detente

the

a

to

the

world

because

Security

USA,

power.

the

became

Mao

He

United

Council.

Soviet-initiated

which

China

known

aimed

was

also

Nations

now

to

as

“ping-pong

undermine

prompted

had

had

to

accepted

the

power

the

position

begin

a

veto

of

the

1

Sino–American

China’s

of

diplomacy”.

seat

to

policy and explain how each event

on

strengthened or weakened Mao’s

block

position.

resolutions.

2

Mao

invited

parting

former

PRC

of

President

the

rival

crept

Bamboo

nations.

out

diplomatic

Construct a timeline of Mao’s foreign

of

Nixon

to

Curtain

Although

isolation.

By

China

was

a

greeted

major

much

1979

and

still

both

him

diplomatic

divided

the

countries

in

success

two

had

1972.

This

for

Debate whether Mao’s foreign policy

was a success or a failure.

both

countries,

established

the

full

relations.

Relations with other nations

China’s

relationship

agreements,

Relations

but

were

with

tensions

strained

with

India.

Relations

after

Mao’s

death

Relations

criticized

were

with

Mao

always

Chinese

in

the

for

mainland,

was

initially

when

China

between

India

based

borders

took

supported

and

China

on

mutual

them

to

Pakistan

were

not

border

war

in

the

in

1962.

1965

stabilized

war

until

1976.

West

his

hostile

India

concerning

showed

hardline

and,

despite

Taiwan

has

little

mutual

policies

in

Mao’s

respect.

Tibet.

attempts

remained

The

Relations

to

regain

independent

to

UN

with

heavily

Taiwan

Taiwan

this

for

the

day.

147

3.3

Mao’s economic and social policies

Conceptual understanding

Key questions

➔

What were the aims of Mao’s economic and social reforms?

➔

How successful were Mao’s economic and social reforms?

Key concepts

➔

Consequences

➔

Perspectives

When

to

he

took

improve

PRC

in

the

greatest

goals

and

labelled

Mao’s

the

of

these

reforms

extent

to

1949,

of

transformation

when

or

those

politics

which

often

Mao’s

the

who

got

the

in

way

were

had

with

of

or

the

Perhaps

the

revolutionary

any

problems

punished,

human

This

aspiration

faced

China.

Cultural

progress.

creative

of

Mao’s

the

the

genuine

about

purged,

but,

of

reach

truth

a

challenges

society

to

the

then

disruption

the

reforms

spoke

gains

have

and

pressure

and

made

and

to

Signicant

economy

“rightists”,

Forward

seems

people.

the

was

undoubtedly

Leap

Mao

the

of

challenges

targets

that

in

conditions

“defeatists”

Great

clear

power

the

or

tragedy

out.

of

Revolution,

chapter

were

wiped

it

explores

is

the

destructive.

The Chinese Communist Party’s economic policies

When

the

ination

rate

had

cuts

in

the

Chinese

rate

been

public

old

was

Communist

out

of

reduced

to

spending,

Chinese

dollar

Party

control,

a

at

more

a

new

came

per

tolerable

increased

with

(CCP)

1000

15

taxation

per

on

currency,

to

cent.

in

1951,

cent.

urban

the

power

By

This

was

residents

renminbi

1949,

the

or

the

ination

achieved

and

by

replacing

yuan.

The rst Five-Year Plan, 1952–1957

Mao

to

was

the

determined

Soviet

become

a

Union.

that

For

command

China

the

would

revolution

economy

and,

industrialize

to

to

succeed,

that

end,

on

a

similar

China

in

scale

needed

1952

China’s

to

rst

command economy Five-Year

Plan

was

introduced.

industrial

workforce

The

country

now

had

a

potentially

huge

An economic system in which the means because

of

mass

migration

from

the

countryside

of production are publicly owned and into

the

towns:

between

1949

and

1957,

China’s

urban

population

economic activity is controlled by a doubled

from

57

million

to

100

million.

central authority. Central planners decide

on the goods to be produced, allocate raw

In

materials, x quotas for each enterprise,

with

and set prices.

resources

to

the

economic

pay

Mao

Sino-Soviet

and

for

and

for

148

assistance.

advisers

with

Stalin.

industrial

Under

this

the

agreement

for

of

This

the

5

per

the

assistance

USSR

cent

loans,

of

the

agreed

included

transformation

high-interest

Only

1950,

of

which

capital

the

the

provide

provision

economy.

soured

sent

to

to

relations

China

China

of

China

had

between

was

genuine

investment.

rst

industrial

Five-Year

production.

Plan,

The

coal,

steel,

and

development

of

petrochemicals

the

transport

were

targeted

industry

C H A P T E R

was

a

were

road

key

priority

undertaken.

and

rail

command,

pressure

likely

to

ltered

to

and

bridge

from

them,

number

the

ofcials

industrial

been

the

of

impressive

across

party

reach

have

a

One

of

the

was

but

rst

M A o ’ s

at

the

managers

when

Five-Year

and

The

all

are

of

a

levels

workers,

gures

western

Plan

At

A n d

s o C i A l

P o l i C i E s

projects

construction

Nanking.

immense.

even

E C o n o M i C

civil-engineering

was

River

industrial

targets

exaggerated,

results

ambitious

example

Yangtze

to

3 . 3 :

were

analysts

vast

of

the

most

have

notable.

Source skills

The rst Five-Year Plan, 1953–1957

1957

1952

Indicator (unit)

Data

1957

1957

Actual as percentage

Plan

Actual

of plan

Gross output value (in million 1952 yuan)

Industry (excluding handicrafts)

27 010

53 560

65 020

121.4

Producer sector

10 730

24 303

34 330

141.0

1404

3470

6177

178.0

Machinery

Chemicals

864

2271

4291

188.9

8462

18 562

23 862

128.5

68.50

113.00

130.00

115.0

436

2012

1458

72.5

Steel ingot (mmt)

1.35

4.12

5.35

129.8

Cement (mmt)

2.86

6.00

6.86

114.3

Electric power (billion kwh)

7.26

15.90

19.34

121.6

Producer sector less machinery and chemicals

Physical output

Coal (mmt)

Crude oil (tmt)

Internal combustion engines (thousand hp)

Hydroelectric turbines (kw)

Generators (thousand kw)

Electric motors (thousand kw)

Transformers (thousand kva)

Machine tools (units)

260.2

609.0

234.2

79 500

74 900

94.2

29.7

227.0

312.2

137.5

639

1,048

1,455

138.8

1167

2610

3500

134.1

13 734

12 720

28 000

220.1

20

200

167

83.5

5792

8500

7300

85.9

21.5

179.1

54.0

30.2

0

4000

7500

187.5

80

555

1,174

211.5

Locomotives (units)

Railway freights cars (units)

Merchant ships (thousand dwt tons)

Trucks (units)

Bicycles (thousand units)

Caustic soda (tmt)

79

154

198

128.6

Soda ash (tmt)

192

476

506

106.3

Ammonium sulphate (tmt)

181

504

631

125.2

Ammonium nitrate (tmt)

Automobile tyres (thousand sets)

▲

27.6

6664

7

44

120

272.7

417

760

873

114.9

Sulphuric acid (tmt)

149

402

632

157.2

“666” insecticide (tons)

600

70 000

61 000

87.1

Source A: Statistics for the rst Five-Year Plan

Note: mmt = million metric tons; tmt = thousand metric tons.

From Jonathan Spence, The Search for Modern China

149

3

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

Questions

1

What

the

does

success

this

of

table

the

of

rst

statistics

suggest

Five-Year

about

2

With

Plan?

the

reference

value

and

historians

to

its

origin

limitations

examining

and

of

purpose,

the

Mao’s

assess

statistics

economic

for

policies.

The Great Leap Forward, 1958–1962

The

the

Great

Leap

second

China

into

of

time.

of

the

lagging

1958,

the

the

output

Mao

in

China

West,

the

was

take

the

efforts

would

lead

the

nation

“General

China’s

Steel”.

food

successful

The

a

plan

surplus

The

of

that

food,

then

Mao

capitalist

of

if

set

at

on

would

on

to

the

nation,

overtake

the

speed.

the

going

USSR

become

industry,

T wo

great

“General

battle

turn

and

transformation

to

and

the

turn

vanguard

China

The

succeed.

wage

latter

the

to

amount

agricultural

rapid

was

describe

was

of

ambitions

triumph:

would

the

an

emerge.

to

as

future

agriculture

people

to

aim

shortest

reliance

China

for

the

largely

to

used

His

peasants

world

economic

while

in

the

China’s

the

to

Mao

had

begun

former

supplies

industrial

was

but

were

would

the

rested

essential

Targets

power

seen

was

had

term

1958–1962.

he

resenting

alliance

economy

had

1949,

of

was

the

independent.

▲

Mao

in

workers.

behind

tensions

of

industrial

modern

of

the

a

Although

industrial

was

Plan

revolution

industrial

By

Forward

Five-Year

to

more

but

it

soldiers

Grain”

and

increase

China

into

a

economy.

the

to

collectivized

be

exported

peasants

abroad.

would

The

produce

prots

would

Constructing a rudimentary smelting steel furnace, 1958

then

would

the

create

human

uniforms

and

larger

the

could

The

was

or

Moscow’s

with

Every family was urged to make a

that

producing

smelting device by hand. Small blast

Iron

furnaces were built in backyards to

but

make steel, but lack of knowledge of

backyard

the steelmaking process meant that the

ambition.

results were usually unsatisfactory.

people

the

failure

steel

in

pans,

150

for

blue

was

family

all

this

useless.

in

on

the

this

of

way

the

workers

surpassing

only

be

reality

was

goodwill:

of

furnaces

steel

in

basic

was

blue

tools

Beijing

the

into

identical

and

began

determined

in

area,

and

that

homemade

kept

nation

was

little

in

for

it

is

it

to

still

a

on

the

frenzy

how

as

steel

smelted

quiet.

lofty

Mao

there

would

thoughts

believed

economy.

and

mills,

galvanized

known

quality

steel,

this

and

will

foundries

in

Mao

became

little

such

transform

China’s

to

human

campaign.

smelting

back

frequently

in

where

would

in

Chinese

Mao

authorities

faith

example

reported

bidding.

what

went

hectares

changed

that

made

building

Mao

44

in

only

Square

at

show

world.

Plan

of

The

with

years.

to

machine

dressed

and,

idea

One

kilns.

his

The

the

backyard

ofcials

The

two

Square

amounts

campaign,

ants”.

workers

Five-Year

not

undertaken

Tiananmen

targets.

answered

by

In

capable

propaganda

remarkable

within

the

massive

Jubilant

had

of

square

the

was

the

Red

reliance

would

small

steel

produced

city

surpass

met

also

industry.

economy

were

The

singing

completed

backyard furnaces

and

of

expansion

gures

even

projects

achieved

considerable

meet

China’s

industrial

achieve.

news

they

fourth-largest

was

into

powers.

than

Projected

of

modern

with

as

machinery.

1957

injected

construction

hand

overdrive,

be

a

industrial

Enormous

be

of

the

the

was

for

the

national

Chinese

“emperor

being

from

pots

and

C H A P T E R

3 . 3 :

M A o ’ s

E C o n o M i C

A n d

s o C i A l

P o l i C i E s

State-owned enterprises

For

ideological

government

exist

to

and

pragmatic

control.

make

their

Private

own

reasons,

rms

prots

and

and

industry

was

companies

instead

brought

could

worked

for

no

the

under

longer

state

Class discussion

as

What were the ideological and pragmatic state-owned

enterprises

(SOEs).

Wages,

prices,

and

production

targets

reasons for introducing SOEs? were

The

to

be

SOEs

xed

were

guaranteed

the

SOEs

by

given

wage.

to

the

state

The

become

state.

subsidies

problem

efcient

was

and

and

that

highly

the

workers

there

was

received

little

productive.

a

incentive

Any

surplus

for

was

iron rice bowl given

to

the

state.

The

advantage

for

workers

was

that

the

system

The system for guaranteeing jobs and provided

them

with

an

“ iron

rice

bowl”.

This

included

the

provision

of

protecting wages. accommodation

and

medical

and

health

benets.

Source skills

90

)snot

80

cirtem

70

noillim(

60

50

tuptuo

40

niarG

30

20

10

0

Year

150

14

135 )sno t

12

120

8

spo rc

kcotseviL

noillim(

)snoillim(

cirtem

10

6

4

105

90

75

60

45

rehtO

30

2

15

0

0

1961

1958 1958

1961

Year

▲

Year

China’s agricultural output during the second Five-Year Plan

151

3

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

dna ,leetS

lairtsudnI

50

250

200

noillim(

,laoc

tuptuo

100

300

cirtem

150

350 )snot

snoillim(

tnemec

)nauy

400

200

150

100

50

0

0

1958

1959

1960

1961

1958

1962

1959

1960

Year

▲

1961

1962

Year

China’s industrial output during the second Five-Year Plan

From Jonathan Fenby, The Penguin History of Modern China

Questions

1

What

does

Five-Year

2

Use

the

the

this

source

suggest

about

the

success

of

the

second

plan?

sources

success

of

here

the

and

rst

on

and

page

149

second

to

compare

Five-Year

Although

some

and

contrast

Plans.

of

the

production

gures

look

impressive,

there

were

quality control fundamental

weaknesses

in

the

second

Five-Year

Plan.

The

production

of

The system for monitoring production to materials

was

not

reected

in

an

increase

of

manufactured

goods.

China

ensure that products are of a consistent lacked

the

managerial

know-how

and

technical

skills

required

to

fully

standard. transform

applied

the

economy.

communism

The

two

were

guiding

hindered

principles

by

these

of

quality

underlying

control

and

weaknesses.

applied communism A

number

of

other

factors

hindered

Mao’s

economic

reforms:

Planning according to Marxist principles,

●

In

1960,

the

USSR

stopped

providing

technical

assistance.

This

which includes the ending of private

resulted

in

the

closure

of

half

of

China’s

300

industrial

plants.

ownership and state control of the

economy.

●

The

reforms

way

●

Mao’s

not

●

of

sabotage

his

policies

did

this

at

have

and

soon

driven,

so

political

slogans

got

in

the

part

for

in

limiting

failure.

Mao

administration

the

scientic

that

rather

blind

end

a

but

progress

blamed

he

because

bourgeois

refused

to

he

would

elements

accept

that

fault.

believed

change,

intuition

would

poor

were

he

accelerate

Mao’s

and

not

and

played

responsibility

for

work

ideologically

sense.

leadership

accept

Mao

were

common

in

the

than

faith

expertise

effort

of

sound

was

required

China’s

economic

often

a

to

vast

make

his

policies

population

would

planning.

rallying

call

for

action,

but

catastrophe.

The Great Famine, 1958–1962

“When

the

there

people

die

is

not

so

enough

that

the

to

eat,

other

people

half

can

starve

eat

to

their

death.

It

is

better

to

let

half

ll.”

Mao Zedong, March 1959, at a meeting with other

Par ty leaders in the Jinjiang Hotel, Shanghai

152

C H A P T E R

As

to

you

his

Mao’s

that

The

have

read

in

consolidation

industrial

he

could

state

the

plans:

increase

ownership

achieved

in

ve

previous

and

control

Mao

of

the

chapter,

of

to

The

E C o n o M i C

land

reforms

reforms

revolutionize

industrial

land,

M A o ’ s

Mao’s

China.

wanted

China’s

3 . 3 :

also

food

A n d

were

tied

in

s o C i A l

P o l i C i E s

key

with

production

so

workforce.

known

as

collectivization,

collectivization

was

Originally adopted by the Soviet

steps:

government in the 1920s and 1930s, this 1

The

landlords

were

wiped

out

and

land

was

redistributed

among

policy forced the peasantry to give the

peasants.

up their individual farms to join large,

2

Peasants

were

encouraged

3

Peasants

were

organized

4

The

household

5

The

peasants

to

work

into

registration

as

“mutual

aid”

teams

state-owned collective farms.

cooperatives.

system

limited

peasant

movement.

TOK discussion

were

forcibly

arranged

into

communes

and

the

private

Investigate the impor tance of ownership

of

land

ended.

interpretation in history by exploring

By

the

mid-1950s,

reports

urban

had

a

the

and

large

State

labour

1958,

1

to

increased

workforce.

severe

1956

of

that

steps

4

planners

China’s

been

production

shortage,

communes.

had

were

despite

collectives

This

was

of

an

achieved

grain

also

was

not

acutely

migration

were

but

there

reaching

aware

to

the

part

of

the

that

cities.

amalgamated

integral

into

expressed by Mao (www.maoists.org/

the

dikottermisinterpretation.htm).

China

Between

a

Great

an alternative view of these words

were

number

commune

Leap

An organized region where the collectives

forward:

were grouped together. ●

Throughout

●

Each

commune

some

●

●

200

PRC

and

distribution

Private

failure

the

result

was

that

the

communes

000

produce

was

his

brigades

were

and

in

by

to

reforms

was

the

an

established.

each

brigade

Mao’s

betrayal:

Lysenkoism,

the

included

of

in

and

tune

Mao

peasants

about

became

with

put

the

the

had

the

agricultural

which

methods,

the

sale

prices.

end.

doubts

the

farming

setting

were

crushed

Although

1949,

ultimate

controlled

and

brought

land

peasants.

their

replaced

750

resistance

revolution

in

000

government

of

farming

Any

on

had

central

claimed

peasants.

70

households.

The

Mao

of

China,

wishes

blame

been

the

peasant

expertise

ofcial

policy

the

any

vanguard

class

of

of

for

would

the

peasants

in1958.

Lysenkoism

Trom Lysenko was a Soviet researcher Attempts

to

eradicate

pests

according

to

the

ideas

of

Lysenkoism

who claimed to have developed produced

absurd

results.

The

whole

population

was

called

on

to

end

techniques to grow enormous yields of the

menace

of

sparrows

and

other

birds

that

ate

crop

seeds.

Birds

were

“super-crops” like rice, barley, and wheat. driven

off

the

land

when

households

came

out

of

their

home,

making

as

It was later realized that his ideas were much

noise

as

possible

by

clanging

plates,

pots,

and

pans.

Thousands

of

fraudulent, but because Stalin accepted birds

were

destroyed,

with

tragic

results:

there

was

an

explosion

of

the

Lysenko’s ideas as scientic truth, Mao crop-eating

insect

and

vermin

population,

which

ate

the

grain

stocks.

did the same. Farmers were forced to State

ofcials

also

continued

to

requisition

grain.

Opposition

was

futile,

follow Lysenko’s awed ideas. even

to

when

their

prison

Most

old

hunger

farming

ways

The

were

peasants

labelled

who

as

resisted

“rightists”

or

and

tried

to

ended

return

up

in

the

camps.

provinces

when

ensued.

as

many

provinces

of

of

as

China

45

central

were

million

China

affected

people

there

by

died

was

an

the

of

arc

famine

that

starvation.

of

misery,

In

followed,

the

from

famine

Shandong

in

153

3

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

the

east

was

to

rife,

that

Mao

take

the

of

truth

Peng

eventually

the

●

local

●

bad

Mao’s

Deng

Xiaoping,

Mao’s

Eventually

Mao

what

he

was

he

as

he

sold

not

that

their

act.

children

Part

of

production

dangerous,

as

the

and

targets

you

cannibalism

problem

have

were

was

being

already

met.

seen

with

what

had

supplies

affected

Marxist

but

he

still

did

not

harvests.

and,

from

allow

Shaoqi

confronted

the

political

private

improved

both

happening

food

tarnished

to

was

blamed:

incompetent

withdrew

punish

saw

too

accept

being

reforms

food

would

to

which

reputation

revoked

far

hoarding

for

weather,

did

claim

Instead,

for

ofcials

Parents

Dehuai.

came

peasants

to

was

responsibility.

●

west.

leadership

continued

the

purge

in

China’s

ofcials

Speaking

the

Tibet

but

the

Deng

Liu

Shaoqi

frontline.

farming

and

and

by

to

famine

later

Liu

operate

came

on,

for

and

and

Deng

again.

to

an

going

end,

but

against

ideals.

L TA

Communication and research skills

Research the causes and impact of the Great Famine and produce a presentation

of your conclusions. Find out about the following:

1

The human impact and how the peasants tried to survive

2

What the Chinese leadership claimed were the causes of the famine

3

Examples of propaganda produced during the Great Leap Forward

4

What historians say about the causes of the famine

This website is a good star ting point: http://factsanddetails.com/china/cat2/sub6/

item2854.html

Religious policies

Communism’s

deliberately

masses.

party.

Buddhism

In

Mao’s

Mao

evident

as

ofcial

view

cultivated

saw

soon

by

China,

religion

as

the

of

the

religion

classes

religion

as

a

CCP

was

poison

won

is

in

that

it

power

to

be

and

power

a

capitalist

suppress

replaced

this

in

is

to

by

invention,

the

exploited

loyalty

anti-religious

to

zeal

the

was

1949.

An ancient religion that emphasizes the Christian

churches

Ministers

were

were

forced

to

close

and

their

property

was

conscated.

individual’s journey to enlightenment.

expelled

ancestor worship

and

The practice of honouring dead ancestors

became

from

through

China.

Religion

commonplace.

to

attacked

loudspeakers.

Confucianism,

allowed

physically

were

wear

was

China’s

foreign

against

traditional

from

clothes.

priests

condemned

Slogans

banned

religious

and

being

in

and

propaganda

Buddhism

faiths,

and

Buddhism

practised

Ancestor

nuns

openly

worship

Christianity

and

and

was

were

posters

nobody

also

ruled

was

out.

agitprop Songs

and

dances

and

traditional

festivals

were

replaced

with

political

An abbreviation for “agitation propaganda” meetings

and

agitprop

performances

organized

by

the

party,

to

preach

used to impose political ideas through the

message

against

landlords,

enter tainment . encouraged

154

as

the

new

faith.

Confucians,

and

priests.

Maoism

was

C H A P T E R

To

give

an

appearance

of

tolerance,

some

3 . 3 :

M A o ’ s

churches

E C o n o M i C

were

A n d

allowed

s o C i A l

P o l i C i E s

to

Class discussion remain

These

as

long

had

to

profess

government’s

religious

The

as

establishments

clergy

the

open

policy

Pope

During

by

the

the

were

open

right

led

rejected

appointed

they

to

the

to

a

not

known

appoint

patriotic

endanger

as

support

the

for

rift

the

and

and

of

the

churches”.

communist

dictate

between

churches

security

“patriotic

the

clergy

permanent

Chinese

Cultural

“did

the

regime

refused

to

Why was Buddhism in par ticular targeted

The

and

doctrine.

Vatican

state”.

accept

by the Chinese state?

China’s

and

accept

the

PRC.

clergy

state.

Revolution

of

1966–1976,

religion

was

attacked

as

Class discussion one

of

was

denounced

by

the

the

“four

and

authorities.

fear

of

and

repression

ethnic

of

olds”

religious

and

Han

partial

the

The

further

name

CCP

separatism

to

control

religious

Chinese

and

of

in

By

on

and

provinces.

1976,

in

these

this

persecuted.

was

religion

Xinjiang

these

were

Confucius

attack

populations

there.

clergy

linked

was

Tibet.

They

areas

The

also

by

migration

also

to

targeted

Compare

by

Mao’s

anyone

motivated

CCP

tried

used

to

settling

policy

Confucianism

had

invasion

dilute

large

met

a

an d

another

m ethods

policies

to

of

those

of

dictator.

the

with

only

success.

Historically,

world.

ideals

aims

numbers

Policies aecting women and the family

the

the

anti-religious

Chinese

Imperial

held

that

a

women

China

woman

had

had

been

been

must

obey

a

among

patriarchal

the

most

patriarchal

her

husband.

repressed

society;

It

was

Dominated by men.

in

Confucian

very

rare

for

footbinding women,

like

the

Dowager

Empress

Cixi,

to

hold

positions

of

power.

The

Men regarded small feet as erotic, so it was medieval

practice

of

footbinding

was

still

practised

in

some

parts

of

customary for girls, even peasant girls, to China

and

in

rural

China

it

was

commonplace

for

women

to

be

forced

have their feet broken and tightly bound into

arranged

marriages.

Many

women

were

sold

into

marriage,

at

a

at a very young age, so that their feet price

based

on

how

many

children

she

was

likely

to

have.

Before

the

resembled a “lotus ower ”. This agonizing establishment

of

the

PRC

it

was

legal

and

not

unusual

for

a

husband

practice was prevalent until the 1930s to

have

concubines,

which

meant

that

even

a

married

woman

was

as a means to make girls attractive for subordinate.

marriage.

In

1919

Mao

as

“indirect

wrote

rape”

a

series

and,

of

during

articles

the

condemning

1930s

and

arranged

1940s,

Mao

marriage

continued

to

concubinage give

the

impression

that

he

was

a

rm

believer

in

women’s

rights.

The

The practice of men keeping women as party

under

him

outlawed

footbinding

in

parts

of

China

where

it

still

mistresses (concubines). survived.

the

PRC

posts

1950,

the

was

went

domestic

In

In

1950s

very

to

the

a

and

“Women

male-dominated

female

hold

up

system.

comrades

were

half

Few

still

the

sky”

important

expected

to

but

Party

do

PRC

introduced

the

Marriage

Reform

Law.

It

included

the

changes:

1

Concubinage

2

Arranged

3

The

4

Women

was

abolished.

marriages

paying

of

(and

permitted

All

much

women

claimed

chores.

following

5

Mao

to

came

dowries

men)

to

was

who

an

end.

forbidden.

had

been

previously

forced

to

marry

were

divorce.

marriages

had

to

be

registered

with

the

state.

155

3

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

Source skills

Propaganda poster

Look

at

the

poster

below.

A happy marriage, a happy family, 1955

▲

Question

What does this poster suggest about the impact of the Marriage Reform Law?

The

new

marriage

divorced

as

some

and

women

government

regulations

for

At

many

rst,

in

their

own

men

because

both

cent.

others

It

was

role.

and

was

of

a

to

Social

husbands

People’s

legal

right

to

historic

to

own

and

many

disruption

in

as

many

Liberation

to

women

followed,

years.

Army

override

land

their

reforms.

women

break

the

agriculture,

The

(PLA)

wives’

were

with

gains

tradition

were

which

During

granted

the

land

whereby

short-lived

took

away

the

rights

land.

regarded

as

between

many

the

Mao’s

1950s,

However,

ofcially

for

the

of

quadrupled

gains

than

to

from

signicant

property.

unsuited

difcult

The

received

times.

four

the

beneted

This

were

were

off

of

clause

had

campaigns

women

women

were

jubilantly

as

collectivization

women

better

many

special

women

the

There

were

number

divorce.

controlled

of

working

no

a

as

a

soldiers

name.

men

Because

of

a

that

redistribution

only

of

took

added

so

request

land

reforms

remarried

women

demands

of

equals

1949

to

where

heavy

to

men,

1976,

the

the

from

work

physical

number

8

was

to

32

per

tting,

labour

and

but

felt

before.

challenge

practice

ingrained

of

female

ideas

about

infanticide

women

and

continued

their

because

female infanticide

most

Chinese

couples

believed

that

boys

brought

honour

and

economic

The killing of newborn girls.

benets

equality

culture

and

156

and

was

that

not

dictated

restricted

girls

well

that

to

the

were

a

drain

received

women

in

must

domestic

on

resources.

Xinjiang

be

sphere.

The

province,

obedient

to

notion

where

male

of

female

Muslim

family

members

C H A P T E R

During

Mao’s

membership

National

little

to

politics

dictatorship,

of

the

People’s

good

a

that

women

realm

see

Mao

the

each

relegate

other

Women

saw

for

to

starve

to

divorce

of

for

so

that

her

provinces

ended

up

food

by

Party

These

in

the

children

some

parts

the

per

to

on

the

to

cent

cent

but

efforts

family

loyalty

women

P o l i C i E s

the

the

there

to

traditional

the

Chairman

their

of

in

s o C i A l

is

make

enter.

segregated

famine

for

to

a

the

years

Chinese

for

the

Mao

to

and

who

It

was

the

only

were

girls

women

China,

often

as

their

Party.

In

allowed

wives

to

and

were

soared

to

by

brothels

have

woman

increase

the

famine-

and

worsened,

themselves

up

a

the

famine

exploitation

set

for

in

to

would

motherless

the

offered

ofcials

better

left

as

to

scrambled

child

elsewhere

rate

and,

they

which

husband

divorce

vulnerable

as

as

decide

children

affected

of

23

per

deputies

required

destroy

refer

were

survive.

were

to

the

below

had

look

thrived

to

Many

Many

This

to

13

A n d

redundant.

reason

China.

Cultural

as

one

of

everyday

Although

later

and

only

E C o n o M i C

CCP

in

for

return

special

for

use

members.

attacked

normal

of

love

Many

could

this

Prostitution

and,

During

For

abandoned.

also.

ofcials.

rest

told

visits.

during

14

attack

necessary

become

husband

struck

boys

role

from

M A o ’ s

women

encouraged

couples

children.

survival.

were

were

up

of

making

deliberate

conjugal

the

rise

was

personal

most

their

a

was

married

their

suffered

provide

it

Children

communes

mothers

odds

that

state.

to

CCP

involved

said

made

percentage

did

the

and

many

Congress

that

of

father

women

The

suggest

Collectivization

family.

CCP .

3 . 3 :

the

leaders

Revolution,

the

“four

family

life

population

introduced

of

the

olds”.

was

traditional

Under

the

denounced

China

measures

almost

to

nuclear

banner

and

the

family

the

was

Red

Guards,

destroyed.

doubled

restrict

of

during

number

Mao’s

of

time,

births.

Mao’s cultural policies

“The

but

Cultural

for

One

the

Revolution

whole

hundred

people.

million

was

We

not

just

were

people

were

all

its

a

disaster

victims,

for

the

people

of

Party,

several

for

the

country,

generations.

victims.”

Pufang, Deng Xiaoping’s son, 1996

From

the

needed

was

of

1930s,

to

reect

established,

achieving

Thousands

politically

It

is

the

made

values

censorship

this.

of

had

The

books

incorrect

duty

were

and

of

a

and

of

it

proletarian

creative

war

clear

propaganda

burned

the

very

artists

because

on

that

society.

was

to

a

the

crucial

serve

were

cinema

culture

When

became

they

foreign

China’s

the

deemed

and

PRC

means

people.

to

western

be

music L TA

was

Mao

relentless.

a

good

idea

of

1966–1976

of

creative

During

to

artists:

the

review

(see

years

page

writers,

of

the

155)

the

aims

and

before

painters,

Cultur al

impact

you

of

consider

musicians,

the

and

R e vo lu t i on ,

Cultural

how

it

Revolution

affected

the

lives

lmmakers.

Jia n g

Qi n g,

Communication and research skills

Foreign

by

films

Russian

October

(1937),

(1938),

and The

became,

in

Ma o ’s

wo rds ,

the

“ c u lt u r a l

pu ri  e r

of

the

literature,

ar t,

a nd

me di a

tha t

pr om ot e d

Chi ne s e

themes

This

incl ud e d

ope r a– ba l le t s

t h at

t ol d

the

s tor y

Great

Virgin

repla ced

in

Citizen

of

these

films

Lands (1958)

a nd

the

presentation

to

prepare

expla in

w hy

a

they

wer e

were allowed.

The

and

a s Lenin

na t io n ” .

brief Only

ous ted

such

M a o ’s

Research wife,

were

ones

thought

acceptable.

tr iu m p h

157

3

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

of

the

proletariat

artistic

the

of

heads

off

its

cl a ss

b e ca me

ow e r s

to

e ne mie s .

fa na ti ca l .

show

the i r

Jia n g ’s

Ch il dr e n

wa r

w er e

c on t e m p t

for

a g ai n st

u r ge d

g enu i ne

to

bou r g eo is

kn o c k

c on c e pt s

beauty.

Any

creative

artists

“re-education”.

Class discussion

over

expression

creative

artists

who

Only

was

resisted

Deng

to

were

Xiaoping

entertain,

but

sent

to

dared

his

to

labour

camps

suggest

words

were

that

lost

for

the

as

purpose

of

intellectuals

What do you think were the values of a and

creative

artists

were

unwilling

or

too

afraid

to

resist

the

destruction

proletarian society? of

China’s

traditional

culture.

Literacy, language and education

In

1949,

Mao

power

been

cent

The

to

the

made

majority

the

and

by

the

established.

in

1949

success

the

to

of

reform

of

the

education

1976,

per

Mao’s

pronunciation

the

of

peasants

the

mid-1950s

By

70

of

of

a

the

were

masses

a

national

levels

illiterate

priority

system

of

of

literacy

or

barely

soon

after

primary

had

risen

literate.

achieving

education

from

20

had

per

cent.

educational

Mandarin

Mandarin

reforms

language

had

varied

can

in

in

be

partly

1955.

attributed

Historically,

different

parts

of

the

China,

and

ideogram communication

was

also

hindered

because

the

language

was

so

difcult

A picture or character symbolizing the to

write.

of

ideograms,

This

is

because

it

did

not

have

an

alphabet

and

instead

consisted

idea of a thing without indicating the not

letters.

To

write

the

language,

you

needed

to

learn

sounds used to say it. words

To

separately.

improve

that

all

this,

speakers

the

P RC

a nd

i ntro duce d

wr i te r s

of

it

a

wr it t e n

could

f or m

r e cog n iz e

of

an d

M a n da r in

u s e.

T he

re s u lt

Pinyin was

Pinyin,

a

system

that

cha r a cte r i zed

Mandar in

so u nd s

i nt o

A standard phonetic system for symbols.

For

the

r s t

ti me ,

s pok en

Ma n da ri n

c o u ld

be

wri t t e n

in

a

transcribing Mandarin. standardized

M a o ’s

time,

literacy

but

During

the

aims

an d

policies

ref orm s

to

the

reforms

education

Revolution,

school

or

re-opened,

as

a

largely

whole

successful

made

about

130

million

and

about

to

work.

creativity

because

were

university

countryside

undermined

those

the

Even

and

priority

to

in

their

advance.

young

12

when

critical

was

little

people

million

of

them

educational

thinking

produce

were

students

conformed

to

Party

ideals.

M a o ’s

eventual

s u c c e s s o r,

Deng

of Xiaoping,

another

into

of

of who

educational

language

Cultural

attending

sent

greatly

Mao’s

and

system

establishments

Class discussion

Compare

the

the

stopped

were

form.

later

questioned

whether

students

in

China

were

capable

dictator. of

reading

a

book.

L TA

Research and communication skills

Go to the Chineseposters.net website. Select a number of themes related to Mao’s

economic and social polices (1949–1976). There are many collections related to

propaganda campaigns and reforms aecting health, women, education and the

economy. Research a campaign and present your ndings.

a

Describe and explain the message of a propaganda campaign poster.

b

Explain any additional information you have learned about the aims and

impact of Mao’s social and economic reforms.

158

C H A P T E R

3 . 3 :

M A o ’ s

E C o n o M i C

A n d

s o C i A l

P o l i C i E s

Health reforms

One

of

the

universal

medical

From

Mao

care

1949

and

schemes

Local

1950s

The

to

so

for

that

swept

good

along

condemned

used

large

doctors

numbers

their

medical

as

the

a

anesthetics

basic

the

and

of

in

1949

was

the

aimed

lack

to

of

direct

China.

experiences

These

huge

PRC

government

a

number

involved

advice

spread

nurses

people

of

of

Jiangxi

campaigns,

health

efforts

diseases

were

could

and

Yan’an,

called

government-funded

on

communal

in

to

and

like

trained

receive

hygiene.

eradicate

insects

dysentery

throughout

professional

and

the

medical

time.

for

by

of

their

with

prevent

Revolution

targeted

before

to

the

new

introduced

people

more

rst

on

launched

swamps

the

based

The

areas

movements”.

provide

Cultural

were

remotest

communists

Many

facing

healthcare.

onwards,

populations

malaria.

challenges

to

the

health

drain

care

to

the

“patriotic

and

biggest

access

damaged

bourgeois

practice

fanatical

bourgeois

and

during

childbirth.

By

late

as

health

doctors,

zeal

of

reaction

analgesics.

reform

lifestyles.

the

Many

fearful

Red

and

in

because

Politics

of

being

Guards.

some

women

doctors

increasingly

Showing

cases

were

came

attacked,

doctors

denied

were

pain

no

was

longer

painkillers

Class discussion the

1960s,

a

crash

programme

for

training

doctors

was

Should Mao be remembered as a liberator introduced.

Trainee

doctors

would

engage

in

months

of

intensive

or an oppressor of China? practical

over

a

study

million

doctors,

and

new

these

would

then

doctors

young

had

idealists

go

to

been

live

with

trained.

greatly

the

peasants.

Known

improved

the

as

By

1973

barefoot

lives

of

peasants

barefoot doctor by

providing

medical

treatment,

often

free

of

charge.

In

the

long

term,

Health worker who provided medical care however,

a

full

national

health

service

was

not

established

during

the

in rural areas. era

of

CCP

rule.

L TA

Communication skills

Discuss how each of the following factors create problems for students studying

Mao Zedong’s dictatorship:

●

By tradition, China’s ruling authorities view the purpose of history as justifying

the present.

●

Before 1976, everything published in China praised Mao Zedong without

reservation.

●

Mao has not been entirely criticized and rejected by his successors.

●

In China, the Cultural Revolution is viewed as a closed topic.

●

Chinese textbooks are not allowed to dwell on the negative aspects of

China’s history.

●

Since the 1950s, western sinologists have sought to convey the truth

about China.

●

Since the 1990s, many Par ty archives have been opened in Russia and, most

recently, in China.

●

Authors like Jung Chang have been criticized for being too critical of Mao

because of their own experiences.

159

Exam-style questions

Answer

the

applicable,

1

Examine

for

2

the

methods

the

methods

Assess

the

role

Account

for

used

reference

state

by

of

one

your

to

China

and,

where

choice.

authoritarian

leader

in

his

bid

used

by

an

authoritarian

leader

to

consolidate

Evaluate

of

the

terror

and

force

in

maintaining

power

in

two

states.

the

authoritarian

5

with

dictatorship.

authoritarian

4

questions

authoritarian

power.

Analyse

his

3

following

another

effectiveness

of

internal

opposition

to

two

leaders

states.

role

of

ideology

in

the

policies

of

two

authoritarian

leaders.

160

6

Examine

the

status

7

Examine

the

role

of

the

8

Examine

the

role

of

education

9

Analyse

the

global

of

women

arts

impact

of

in

in

two

two

in

one

authoritarian

authoritarian

two

states.

authoritarian

ruler

of

an

states.

states.

authoritarian

state.

of

Evaluation

Question

Evaluate

the

domestic

social

and

cultural

policies

of

Mao.

Analysis

An

evaluation

theme

to

or

words

answers

question

argument

like

that

discussion.

weigh

exploration,

It

essential

two

reasons.

policies

health

to

in

and

Firstly,

policies

minority

purging

opposition

from

It

is

in

each

a

social

the

too

dates,

The

the

a

to

but

an

and

reason

it

as

a

also

carefully

for

issue

under

of

debate

carefully,

social

selecting

link

was

cultural

cultural

include

themes

exam,

and

for

education,

themes

Revolution

the

similar

process

including

these

included

in

the

question

cultural

Cultural

the

looking

of

domestic

of

is

of

judgment.

themes

All

is

detailed

essay

pressure

by

you

on

about

A

against

ideologically

for

or

of

if

to

Mao’s

about

policies

you

affecting

need

detailed

successful

often

and

of

to

avoid

knowledge

Mao’s

and

point

is

be

fullled

catastrophic

or

a

to

Mao’s

showcase

your

assessment

factual

grasp

tailoring

the

question

domestic

of

of

your

their

the

essay

to

that

aims,

extremely

the

This

indicating

the

impact

Mao’s

but

Evaluation

policies

reached.

and

measure

argued

carefully

policies.

behind

were

evidence

his

an

while

motives

to

related

to

success.

unpack

the

could

you

with

goals/objectives

using

starting

It

that

policies

degree

aims

themes

demonstrate

Mao’s

must

the

into

requires

balance

evaluate

the

aims.

essay

essay

must

their

debate

good

his

of

you

should

how

also

You

effects

why

your

The

and

awareness

perspectives.

was

organize

policies.

debates

how

view

impact

the

“evaluate”

limitations

The

arts.

appraisal

examiner

Mao’s

social

the

full

informed

about

of

time

breadth

limitations.

opportunity

policies

an

women.

and

Mao,

and

a

term

The

evaluation

number

knowledge

and

second

requires

and

idea

the

concerns

an

Under

much

changes,

explore

reach

example,

to

arts.

The

evaluation

question

a

For

cultural

descriptive

strengths

to

make

theme.

good

and

at

affecting

reforms.

writing

a

to

“analyse”.

strengths

look

groups

political

and

the

“unpack”

you

discussion.

and

order

incorporates

religion,

media

up

could

and

is

under

“criticize”

You

requires

that

of

Mao’s

policies

their

opens

different

were

practical

limited.

Sample answer

When

Mao

seized

communist

social

They

policies

met

with

neglected.

viewed

as

power

revolution

related

some

Other

to

China

would

in

in

policies,

from

1949,

his

overriding

dramatically

education

success

social

lib eration

in

that

and

health

addressing

especially

patriarchy,

but

were

basic

those

the

aim

transform

was

relating

needs

to

came

to

levels

implemented

human

family

all

for

that

women,

under

establish

of

Chinese

a

society.

pragmatic

had

in

b een

theory

vicious

His

reasons.

historically

could

attack,

be

and

161

SS

S K I L L S

S E C T I O N

against

Mao’s

and

the

cultural

eliminate

sense

of

great

and

and

Western

continue

to

aimed

of

for

to

for

loss

The

underplayed

personalities

had

of

are

famine,

a

and

the

disastrous

which

is

where

blamed

for

of

his

China’s

domestic

on

most

by

the

work

social

of

groups

devout

destructive.

they

of

and

these

a

political,

achieved,

in

struggles.

minority

driven

immensely

arguably

emphasized

debate

any

on

new

over

were

were

impact

were

faced

control

changes

results

aims

women

assert

These

limitations

China

many

religion,

Mao’s

life,

grave

in

out

control

Although

and

and

expression.

example,

historians.

life

wipe

artistic

desire

suering

be

other

commune

development.

human

where

policies

R evolution

cultural

of

freedom

ideology

Cultural

and

backdrop

economic

resulted

Mao’s

cultural

issues

The

is

in

critics

policies

closed

or

failings.

Examiner comments

This

is

a

address

of

strong

the

Mao’s

The

student

violence

or

although

mention

such

as

“loss

1.5

The

to

of

lives

candidate

candidate

has

are

why

reforms

still

that

a

were

a

avoided

one

way

It

would

well

to

up

on

as

the

schools

received

by

this,

reforms.

will

be

such

examples

that

others

on

sentences

explored.

show

the

The

some

were

motives

explaining

in

the

China’s

body

have

make

a

for

why

of

in

point

of

thought

sectors

the

some

Tibet”.

on

and

some

it

is

that

the

some

the

subject

cultural

of

and

always

resounding.

Mao’s

population,

censorship

mention

estimated

Instead,

exist

the

–

The

example,

The

“an

more

of

policies,

essay.

an

saying

social

that

of

the

with

another.

domestic

given

of

history

Mao’s

Revolution”

mistake

think

on

included

elaborated

mention

many

as

impact

Cultural

to

Mao’s

to

to

“oppression

been

others

well

which

be

whereas

their

could

common

while

quantify

his

and

or

statistic

which

be

of

will

opening

not.

explored

have

the

clear

commented

factors

others

result

perspectives

challenge

propped

as

did

freedom”

might

indicated

their

different.

life”

is

argument

importantly,

be

student’s

It

success,

suffering”

compelling

has

think

to

human

lost

a

historians

and

likely

of

of

has

indicated

religious

human

have

have

are

relative

others

fanaticism

“great

“loss

of

million

useful

162

these

of

where

directly.

line

candidate

and,

The

policies/themes

general

reforms

could

the

question

with

The

succeeded

paragraph.

cultural

a

met

limited.

domestic

policies

the

and

indicated

reforms

extremely

of

social

has

domestic

of

scope

domestic

student

introductory

policies

domestic

but

it

is

propaganda

4

G e r m a n y

–

H i T l e r

Th gob cotxt

Authoritarian

regime

in

is

not

which

political

restricted

or

forms.

the

state,

In

in

sought

of

its

states

case

which

the

and

–

Germany

party,

control

and

in

to

abolished

of

one

exert

citizens

states

pluralism

simply

which

to

–

accountable

civil

take

this

driven

over

exercised

a

opportunity

ruling

social,

and

rights

a

of

of

totalitarian

monopoly

of

of

peace.

led

to

the

the

emergence

form

of

an

of

was

World

acted

nation

that

victors

or

regimes

Russia,

not

as

unique

a

Italy,

rst

and

half

of

for

The

the

Germany)

state

change

on

new

20th

were

the

in

the

The

in

measures,

over

every

of

the

the

authoritarian

(in

their

fascism

early

show

First

every

side

century

given

destruction

emergence

massive

of

of

of

by

produced

older

regimes

aspect

economic,

caused

attempted

the

of

growth

of

that,

the

the

by

state

to

the

terms

systems

through

wield

life

a

model

fascism

with

those

in

of

Socialism

emerged

government

for

a

complete

nation.

Hitler

The

Italy

that

(1919–1934)

regime

democratic

of

as

movement.

National

case

totalitarian

his

rise

similarities

Germany’s

of

served

years

explaining

totalitarian

Germany.

whether

vanquished.

the

driven

to

catalyst

participated,

the

of

authoritarian

ideologically

movement

War

an

the

power. Italian

The

of

disruption

disillusionment

The

the

control

life

because

political

and

repressive

ideology,

aspect

and

conict

are

variety

was

by

every

a

the

people

(1919–1925)

helped

in

a

promote

Germany.

illustrates

after

in

factors

how

brief

following

the

a

period

First

WorldWar.

Timeline

The “November Revolution” and 1918 declaration of a republic A convention held in Weimar to produce

1919

Early problems and threats to the

Weimar Republic, political and

a constitution for the new democratic

republic

1919–1923

economic

Weimar ’s “Golden Era/Gilded era”

1923– 1929

of growth and stability under the

chancellorship (three months) and then Decline of accountable democratic 1930

Foreign Ministry of Gustav Stresemann

government and rule by presidential

decree 1933

Death of the Weimar Republic and the

rise and establishment of National Gleichschaltung and the 1934

Socialism; Hitler becomes chancellor

establishment of the Führer state was

largely accomplished

163

4.1

The emergence of the authoritarian

state in Germany, 1919–1934

Cocptu udstdg

Key questions

➔

Was democracy desperately desired in Germany in 1918, or was its

implementation par t of a scheme by Germany’s war time leaders (Field

Marshals Hindenburg and Ludendor) to avoid a punitive settlement after

Germany’s surrender?

➔

Was the constitution established in 1919 a hindrance to successful

democratic practice?

➔

What role did economic distress play in polarizing and brutalizing German

political life during the period? How valid is AJP Taylor ’s view that “only the

Great Depression put the wind into the sails of National Socialism”?

➔

What elements in Germany after 1918 were either actively hostile or simply

apathetic towards the new system?

➔

Was the rise to power of a par ty committed to a totalitarian system a story of

the “irresistible rise” of National Socialism?

Key concepts

➔

Change

➔

Consequences

➔

Causes

➔

Signicance

Ht ’s s to pow

The

Weimar

World

War,

Socialist

Hitler

of

the

explaining

the

greater

saw

destroyed

the

Such

in

for

to

the

National

from

it”.

the

but

achieved

force

March

1933

a

Germany

“Hitler

single-party

seen

the

Year

last

it

interlude

decisive

“a

failure

had

Adolf

the

support

obstacle

to

Reich”.

common

between

and

desperate

First

National

major

was

the

when

gained

Wilhelminian

Germany,

as

1934

(Third)

state”,

the

unied

in

Socialism

troubled

after

to

two

eras

Kaiserreich,

the

and

Third

Reich,

grudging

consequences

not

world”.

welcomed

the

a

to

National

German

of

the

was

linked

establishment

majority

in

of

National

domestically

“as

of

the

“Thousand

whose

the

are

triumph

Socialist

of

of

in

consolidated

importance:

Weimar

democracy

irresistible

prior

his

Republic

sinister

interpretations

the

eliminated

consolidation

Germany

which

and

in

Germany.

emergence

more

which

effectively

establish

Weimar

which

only

to

the

and

experiment

164

which

of

established

establishment

was

Führer

ambition

system,

the

which

military,

describe

of

preceded

state,

became

Hitler’s

In

democratic

of

a

by

the

most

Workers’

43.9

Party

The

per

is

view

state

–

German

as

an

However,

in

(NSDAP)

highest

cent

of

accepted

Germans.

one-party

electorate.

was

pessimistic

Socialism

at

Germany

achieve

percentage

impressive,

history,

inevitable

no

did

point

the

support

of

but

votes

short

of

C H A P T E R

an

4 . 1 :

absolute

power

not

actively

majority.

desired

into

NSDAP

More

emphasize

power

(KPD)

the

in

a

tried

of

to

A u T H o R i T A R i A n

as

or

of

19 19 – 19 3 4

a

that

Nazis

the

later

–

the

handover

use

the

in

Nazis

Communist

to

Party

1932–1933.

catastrophists

as

little

Hitler’s

“if

g E R m A n y,

which

interests

the

rise

historian

that

i n

achieved

see

more

to

AJP

the

than

power.

Taylor

later

The caption to this postcard from 1933 reads: “What the king conquered, the prince

▲

claimed

s T A T E

interpretations

to

period

and

British

claim

baton”

1919–1934

prelude

The

the

power”,

rise

the

because

vested

that

Pessimists

years

by

Nazis

T H E

Germans

“Stabübergabe”

the

–

Germany

counter

but

recent

the

of

The

most

o f

circumstances,

question

claimed.

of

it

of

“seized

“passing

E m E R g E n C E

because

combination

calls

T H E

there

had

been

a

strong

formed, the eld marshal defended and the soldier saved and united.”

democratic

when

never

they

accepted

power

the

of

a

a

simplistic

period:

the

adds

to

power

crying

to

little

problems

Hitler

…

for

argument

Socialism

character

view

Germany,

come

round

National

German

Such

have

went

in

a

that

was

the

the

appreciate

to

an

(Germans)

hero.”

emergence

result

and

of

and

an

accept

understanding

(internal

deserved

what

Germanophobes

of

external)

and

the

the

of

the

are, from left to right, Frederick the Great

of Prussia, Otto von Bismarck, Paul von

Hindenburg, and Adolf Hitler.

democratic

1 experiment

and

mistakes

made

by

political

parties

and

Research and thinking skills

The gures shown on the postcard above

in

principles.

complexity

facing

to

inability

democratic

got

willingly

coming

inherent

they

l Ta

would

sentiment

With reference to the personalities

individuals

shown on the postcard, what was the that

brought

about

Nazi

success.

As

Ian

Kershaw

pointed

out,

“Hitler

intended message of this card issued was

no

in

exorable

product

of

a

German

‘special

path’

( Sonderweg),

no

by the National? logical

culmination

of

long-term

trends

in

specically

German

culture

2 and

Find out the meaning of the phrase

ideology.”

“Janus-faced”. In what way does the

postcard illustrate this characteristic

Conditions in which the authoritarian state emerged of National Socialism?

1

A

discredited

errors,

2

parliamentary

produced

The

dislocation

and

the

a

high

revisionism,

level

produced

subsequent

system

Paris

by

of

nationalism,

and

due

to

disillusionment

the

Peace

that,

First

World

Settlement,

instability

and

War

of

which

and

policy

frustration

1914–1918

produced

revisionism

revanchism

The desire to alter the terms of what was

perceived as the unjust treaty settlement 3

Economic

crises

that

produced

social

and

economic

conditions

after the First World War. causing

panic

resulting

4

Fear

of

Soviet

5

The

or

from

the

the

economic

Left,

state

western

among

and

which

the

population,

political

extremism

instability

was

growth

increased

of

collaboration/capitulation

in

is,

by

the

existence

socialist/communist

of

the

new

movements

in

revanchism

The desire for revenge.

Europe

institutions

Nazis

that

a

–

when

tragedy

of

vested

of

the

existing

interests

political

establishment

underestimated

the

Fascists/

vested interests

Groups or individuals (such as political

leaders, businessmen, and landowners)

miscalculation

with an interest in resisting changes they 6

Semi-legal

assumption

claims

“seizure

of

power,

despite

subsequent

fascist/Nazi

felt would be to their disadvantage. of

a

of

power”

165

4

A U H TO R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

7

The

appeal

of

the

movements/leaders

and

the

skills

of

these

leaders,

pragmatism in

terms

of:

A willingness to be exible and adapt to

circumstances instead of sticking rigidly

●

pragmatism

●

millenarianism

(dogmatically) to principles. (also

referred

to

as

“chiliastic”

of

violence

programmes/promises)

mienarianism ●

propaganda

●

paramilitary

From “millennium”; literally a thousand

years, and generally taken to mean the

the

promise of a future period of prosperity

streets

forces

and

and

destroy

the

use

to

control

opponents.

under the regime. The

emergence

cause:

the

leading

rise

to

of

of

the

Nazi

regime

authoritarian

popular

cannot

regimes

disillusionment

is

with

be

reduced

the

a

result

to

of

preceding

one

simple

circumstances

governmental

Left and Right system.

During this period “the Left” was a term

commonly used to describe political

change

defend

In

in

Germany

this

uncertain

the

disillusionment

times,

preceding

and

regime

to

the

from

led

to

popular

unwillingness

overthrow

by

of

demand

the

for

population

extremist

to

groups.

par ties that were left of centre, tending

towards communist/socialist beliefs.

By contrast, par ties such as the German

Th W rpubc, 1918–1933/34

Nationalists (DNVP) and the NSDAP were

In

referred to as the Right and Extreme Right

although

respectively. While the IB does not use the

abdicate

terms in exam questions, many textbooks

Scheidemann,

do use these terms to describe political

days

Germany

the

“November

Kaiser

until

later

by

Wilhelm

28

by

November.

an

the

Revolution”

II,

SPD

The

(Social

signing

of

then

in

of

in

declaration

Democratic

an

1918

exile

armistice

of

a

Party)

with

occurred

Holland,

republic

leader,

the

Allied

on

did

9

November,

not

by

was

ofcially

Philip

followed

two

powers.

stances, in the inter-war period especially. The

in

Spar tacists

A group of radical socialists, led by Rosa

Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht, who

made a futile attempt in January 1919

to establish a Bolshevik-type state

removal

political

following

a

of

life

an

troubled

replace

dynasty

The

elected

to

holding

Berlin)

gave

autocratic

and

extremists

unsuccessful

convention

republic.

the

that

of

and

revolt

produce

the

the

the

German

sought

in

a

to

Berlin

dynastic

led

its

rule

in

with

the

for

and

one

a

in

a

new

1919

(at

a

on

–

–

was

democratic

safe

distance

constitution

based

vacuum

January

Spartacists

the

Weimar

name

produced

Only

by

constitution

convention

republic

defeat

exploit.

from

designed

popular

to

sovereignty.

in Germany. Below

is

an

democratic

l Ta

replaced

overview

republic,

by

the

of

the

linked

National

six

to

stages

the

Socialist

in

the

question

state.

life

of

of

the

why

Weimar’s

it

short-lived

failed

and

existence

was

was

plagued

Research skills by

Look back over the factors that promoted

fascism/National Socialism, noted above,

domestic

democratic

service

to

and

external

principles

such

–

problems

and

principles

–

those

to

that

who

subvert

allowed

had

the

outright

never

enemies

provided

more

of

than

lip

republic.

and nd specic details of the rise of

Mussolini’s fascism in the period

Stage 1: 1918–1919 1919–1926.

German

military

leaders

later

claimed

that

Germany’s

defeat

in

1918

was

Compare the relative signicance of the a

result

of

a

“stab

in

the

back”

by

internal

enemies.

While

it

was

true

that

factors promoting the growth of the two no

Allied

armies

occupied

German

soil

at

the

time

of

the

armistice,

both

extremist movements. Alternatively, Hindenburg

and

Ludendorff,

the

military

leaders

of

Germany,

realized

that

compare and contrast the factors behind defeat

loomed.

Weakened

by

blockade,

by

its

own

allies’

collapse,

by

the

the emergence of the Bolshevik state in superior

resources

of

a

reinvigorated

Allied

enemy

after

the

USA

entered

the

Russia, 1917–1924. war

in

April

discipline

The

the

peace

and

Berlin

and

Germany

settlement

severity

1918

166

in

1917,

of

the

by

itself,

that

Germany’s

desire

specically).

worrying

for

The

incidents

surrender

followed

was

treatment

revenge

military

was

of

of

the

breakdown

necessary

by

late

likely

to

prove

at

Brest–Litovsk

the

leaders’

Central

acceptance

punitive

Powers

of

both

military

1918.

Russia

against

of

(given

in

March

generally,

Wilhelm

and

II’s

C H A P T E R

4 . 1 :

means

in

the

of

and

treaty

would

rather

to

avoid

punitive

or

democratic

to

reduce

come.

the

It

wrath

was

of

than

the

High

“last

T H E

of

hoped

the

that

that

peace

than

Allies

would

It

has

a

fall

be

the

or,

on

been

on

could

might

Germany,

victorious

manoeuvre

rather

A u T H o R i T A R i A n

government

damage

Command.

great

punishment

o f

form

the

“Carthaginian”

Ludendorff’s

soften

a

trying

E m E R g E n C E

the

a

new

be

g E R m A n y,

seen

on

that

as

state”,

blame

for

was

an

1

Litovsk in order to quit the war with

and

attempt

or

for

the

future.

In

this

sense

the

radical

change

that

What “price”, in economic and

forced to pay in the Treaty of Brest–

Germany?

to

principles,

2

then

Research and thinking skills

territorial terms, was Bolshevik Russia

any

system

Hindenburg

democratic

a

19 19 – 19 3 4

Germany

democratic

that

battleeld”

to

i n

“democratic

not,

claimed

commitment

thus

inicted

as

if

s T A T E

l Ta

abdication

T H E

occurred

In what ways could this be considered

in

a punitive peace?

German

the

political

result

Peter

of

Gay

had

little

practice

opened

gaping,

peasants

like

democracy

the

a

as

for

One

nds

political

The

suspicions

that

of

a

older

to

end

the

era

and

doomed

combined

in

humiliation

the

eyes

of

Versailles

perceived

While

“War

the

a

to

rather

than

democratic

Germans

Weimar

stood

at

the

door ,

familiarity

of

with

the

constitution,

new

attitude

the

practice

Weimar

was

to

a

of

system.

aware

system

Hugo

early

that

on

of

came

stating:

Germans

to

cannot

the

shake

off

authoritarian

must

the

of

be

blood

by

weakened

of

their

state.

their

old

They

blood,

do

not

esh

of

to

“Germany

As

the

lost

of

by

to

was

fragile

democratic

over

for

and

that

long

over

in

by

its

that

the

development,

government

defeat,

a

ushered

mean

base

with

France,

monarchy.

preside

necessarily

a

or

absolute

history

later

resented

231

Europe,

victim

of

of

retained

became

national

of

its

a

the

on

lost

since

a

and

domestic

Peace

it

Hans

of

way

empire

for

war

for

was

and

the

Allies

military

damages.

now

–

not

girdled

strength

reconstruction

on

as

the

peace

military

Settlement

to

for

recovery

Weigel

the

Article

referred

the

Allied

potential

playwright

Paris

colonial

callous

because

Germany.

and

paved

reparations

economic

focused

we

upon

Article

geopolitically,

the

bitterness

inicted

deeply

dubious

empire,

Britain

pressures

was

Austrian

of

signicantly

as

Lie).

in

the

also

not

produced

payment

still

Union

impact

an

–

Guilt

the

were

betrayal,

punishments

itself

the

did

the

the

“Diktat”)

territory

but

German

provided

fact

to

popular

represented

that

this

it

of

such

1919.

Clause”

states

Soviet

development.

in

the

country

new

the

contrasted

democracies

systems

While

War

felt

below”

outcome

many,

enforce

economically

relation

a

deference

failure,

(or

Guilt

Germany

east

of

interests

with

of

(the

Germany

and

to

of

Treaty

injustice

settlement,

only

the

the

success

new

20th-century

Versailles

Kriegsschuldlüge

strip

of

the

the

from

and

dissolution.

was

capacity,

above”

palace.

government

the

in

the

–

new

When

politics,

lack

European

individuals

linked,

231

their

was

especially

The

of

authoritarian

democratic

same

system

the

a

everywhere.

“revolution

democracy

decline

to

Germans,

and

western

period

the

real

adoption

most

where

The

from

esh

lack

the

“revolution

politics…

to

inhibiting

author

timidity

understand

their

seen

rapid

for

in

door

bidden

factor

the

unexpectedly

the

have

a

principal

need

a

groundswell.

constitution

Preuss,

essentially

wrote:

Commentators

to

was

popular

Germans

of

life

later

to

and

and

wrote

in

Austria-Hungary,

world.”

167

4

A U H TO R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

At

the

was

time,

relatively

anything

system

but

a

few

Germans

national

responsible

for

accepted

shame.

signing

the

that

Nationalists

armistice

and

the

held

the

“dictated

the

peace”

governmental

Versailles

Treaty.

Summary of the terms of the Treaty of Versailles

●

Ar tice 231: The “ War Guilt Clause” (or the “ War Guilt Lie”)

Nor thern Schleswig became par t of Denmark and

by which Germany and its allies were held responsible for

Upper Silesia became par t of Poland. The Saar was put

the war of 1914– 1918; Germany was named but not held

under control of the League of Nations; a plebiscite

solely responsible, as many students believe.

Territoria

●

was to be held in 1935 to determine its future.

●

provisions:

Anschluss (or union) with Austria was forbidden.

Germany lost 13 per cent of its European territory,

Financia penaties: Reparations of £6600 million

12 per cent of its population and all its colonies, which

sterling were to be paid in restitution for the “loss and

were distributed to other powers. This meant the loss

damage” caused by the war.

of 16 per cent of coal production, 48 per cent of iron Miitary provisions:

production, 15 per cent of agricultural production,

●

Demilitarization of the Rhineland area and its left bank

and 10 per cent of manufacturing capacity. (Many of

to be occupied by Allied forces for 15 years. these assets had only been acquired by Prussia in the

●

19th century, in a series of wars during the unication

Germany’s army to be restricted to 100 000 men; no

conscription, tanks or heavy ar tillery.

of the nation.)

●

●

Alsace-Lorraine was returned to France, Eupen and

Navy restricted to 15 000 men, no submarines and

Malmedy to Belgium, and Posen and West Prussia to

the eet limited to six battleships, six cruisers and

the new state of Poland; Danzig was to become an

12 destroyers.

international city under the supervision of the League ●

Germany not permitted to have an air force.

of Nations, and Memel was returned to Lithuania.

Stage 2: 1919–1923

Even

the

before

new

with

Wilhelm

military

a

to

its

support

state”).

army

Until

conditional

would

the

to

case

act

of

in

in

in

of

Spartacist

the

its

the

it

the

–

a

move

by

with

those

from

the

Spartacists

state.

With

the

statement

the

army

made

it

socialist-inspired

Key

provisions

Weimar

clear

in

general

the

democracy.

suffrage,

it

identied

also

as

a

that

nationalists,

the

major

–

it

oath

of

of

not

ended

and

but

the

when

at

the

time

side

against

of

to

re

agreed

Hitler

–

the

proved

was

of

act

it

ex-soldiers.

not.

In

ready

Kapp

political

in

upon

when

the

the

forces

to

within

elected

would

army

with

for

defence

of

Reichswehr”,

considered

Only

a

putsch.

often

blamed

introduced

of

it

pact

chose

the

not

were

to

its

army

faced

a

(“state

support

the

1919,

return

Ebert

and

declined

does

act

the

17

principle

of

–

itself

In

allegiance

people

opposite

whom

found

concluded

imperio”

Military

military

are

in

of

August

military.

1918–1919,

the

in

Republic,

Republic

on

Article

weakness

Ebert

the

alacrity,

would

strike

the

of

the

constitution

stated

an

“ Reichswehr

many

Although

new

government,

the

German

the

the

uprising

(SPD),

“imperium

interests.

of

adopted

German

servant

own

life

“Bolsheviks”

1920

of

took

the

Ebert

the

virtual

when

defence

the

a

was

November

of

enemies

being

acted

10

Staff

spectrum

good

168

–

than

Friedrich

On

of

remain

throughout

suppress

putsch

against

to

representatives,

under

Chief

1934

rather

constitution

survival.

Groener,

the

military,

it

republican

government,

threats

allow

the

for

proportional

system.

the

failure

universal

and

of

secret

representation,

Proportional

representation

C H A P T E R

meant

4 . 1 :

that

long-term

the

in

actively

but

the

(BVP),

plethora

spirit

no

committed

of

by

to

Party

the

movements

could

the

early

political

the

parties

non-democratic

unable

in

the

of

a

to

To

blame

began

either

accepting

it

Democrats

Party

(DVP)

People’s

to

to

were

era.

Social

Bavarian

19 19 – 19 3 4

form

Weimar

the

g E R m A n y,

willingness

People’s

two

i n

coalition.

government,

included

latter

s T A T E

Wilhelminian

German

party,

the

or

without

democratic

sister

1930s

often

own

succeed

democracy

its

were

their

pre-Weimar

(DDP),

and

with

on

Some

to

A u T H o R i T A R i A n

parties

towards

fondly

Centre/Zentrum

T H E

either

system

ambivalent

back

o f

political

democracy.

Democratic

although

support

of

or

parties

of

governments,

looking

the

E m E R g E n C E

simplistic:

hostile

Political

and

is

the

often

(SPD),

the

stable

system

work

T H E

veer

Party

towards

programmes.

The main poitica par ties of the Weimar era

Par ty

Ideoogy

KPD (Communist Par ty)

Hostile to democracy, committed to a Soviet- (Moscow-)style regime and taking instructions from Moscow

throughout most of the Weimar period

Paramilitary organization: Red Veterans’ League

Often spouted Marxist rhetoric but essentially dedicated to socialism through the ballot box – that is,

SPD (Social Democrats)

non-revolutionary socialists in comparison to the KPD

Paramilitary organization: Reichsbanner

DDP (Democratic Par ty)

Committed to the Weimar democratic system

DVP (German People’s Par ty)

To the right of centre of the political spectrum but largely committed to a democratic system

DNVP (German National

Well-funded par ty linked to “big business” and landowners. At best a reluctant suppor ter of Weimar and, as

People’s Par ty or Nationalists)

late as 1931, “committed to the renewal of the German empire as established under the Hohenzollerns”,

noting that the “monarchical form of government corresponds to the uniqueness and historical

development of Germany”

Paramilitary organization: Stahlhelm

NSDAP (National Socialist

Hostile to democracy and favouring the establishment of a single-par ty state on the extreme right of the

German Workers’ Par ty)

political spectrum, stressing ultra-nationalistic, militaristic and racist views

Paramilitary organization: Sturmabteilung (SA)

Centre/Zentrum and BVP

Ambivalent towards Weimar. Initially a signicant contributor to coalition government, along with the SPD

(Bavarian People’s Par ty)

and DDP .

As the par ties of “political Catholicism”, by the early 1930s (and fearful of the rise of communism

in Germany) willing to collaborate with par ties and individuals not sympathetic to democracy

Article

the

rule

are

48

by

had

1918

to

be

to

claim

in

an

or

the

early

taken

that

to

(or

time.

Did

accountable

it

it

“in

this

the

after

abuse)

was

of

the

or

constitutional

basic

event

Given

was

a

it

the

was

it

of

failed,

very

order

by

the

in

one

It

and

rapid

While

provision

of

by

that

it

is

the

and

security

Germany

if

emergency

fault

stated

constitution

in

action

accurate

decree,

and

constitution

individuals

or

agenda?

principles

of

the

turmoil

government.

manner,

one

of

practical

run

own

weakness.

public

was

constitutional

and

the

the

1930

their

was

principles

that

democratic

March

construct

used

a

provision

the

to

states

fail,

and

a

as

suspend

authoritarian

Western

undermined

to

endangered”.

defend

according

constitution

in

or

1919,

Germany

acting

identied

decree

disturbed

and

misuse

systems

its

been

entitled

increasingly

interests

The

also

was

emergency

seriously

late

of

has

president

the

adopted

most

because

freedoms

from

progressive

groups

permitted

existing

documents

deliberately

to

destroy

government?

169

4

A U H TO R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

Weimar

laboured

burdens

not

of

ignominious

in

nostalgia

extremism

…

for

One

thing

in

basic

to

disloyal

its

the

and

hasty

or

and

structure

democratic

“reluctant

was

system

that

did

and

political

signing

those

of

an

steeped

and

to

many

political

the

many

from

work

saw

its

suffering

travail

of

others

Schadenfreude.

consolidating

need

were

new

to

ensure

purged

system.

of

Weimar,

administrators,

the

left

who

the

when

the

apparatus

to

in

term

on,

was

basically

left

were

delight

focus

and

ofcers

was

from

evocative

opposed

thus

Republicans”

there

inherited

army

the

structure,

unholy

Germany,

structures

establishment,

judges,

that

regimes

potentially

war,

noted:

coined

Nazi

economic

in

apathy

Republic)

with

have

in

Gay

the

or

totalitarian

USSR

Wilhelminian

best,

Germans

under

defeat

authoritarian

As

(of

governmental

bureaucrats,

and

putschism.

indifference

the

reparations,

pre-1914

beginning

that

beginning

making:

treaty,

the

the

the

elements

due

the

superb

which

power

that

for

the

own

peace

and

from

with

from

its

time

intact

with

of

the

after

people

( Vernunftrepublikaner)

Kaiser.

The

1918–1919

who

and,

were,

at

at

worst,

Vernunftrepublikaner downright

obstructionist

and

deant.

Neither

Lenin

nor

Hitler

made

that

Republicans not from conviction but from mistake

when

they

established

their

single-party

regimes.

In

both

cases

necessity – for example, because of the a

rapid

“cleansing”

of

the

state

apparatus

resulted

in

a

loyal

machine

to

lack of practical alternatives at that time. deliver

The

and

implement

polarization

the

Republic

but

also

by

and

was

single-party

brutalization

witnessed

communist

(1919–1923)

Mussolini’s

and

the

“March

not

on

in

by

Rome”

of

political

only

uprisings

attempt

policies.

in

in

the

Munich,

Hitler

to

life

in

the

Spartacist

the

copy

November

early

and

Ruhr,

stages

Kapp

and

of

threats

Hamburg

(unsuccessfully)

1923.

The economic crisis of 1923

The

“currency

1923

of

was

the

the

Ruhr

infuriated

enforce

to

weaken

the

wage

the

with

term,

to

anti-republicanism.

By

crisis

many,

xed

struck

1923

savings

incomes

the

or

the

This

in

one

and

that

in

levels

for

the

the

had

had

been

to

to

to

the

workers

destroyed

ability

by

to

teach

longer

reactions

production

Weimar’s

in

term

the

workers

terms

collapsed.

occurring

condence

defend

the

of

By

since

in

territorial

nation.

of

Weimar

condence

would

and

The

which

occupation

especially,

determined

area

for

that

November

determined

non-cooperation

support

fact

to

the

recovery.

ination,

inability

undermine

authoritarian

November

For

also

of

the

1923

economic

of

press,

and

of

for

German

to

late

France

and

appeared

on

by

Franco-Belgian

payments

hold

resistance

the

heartland.

provisions,

accelerated

interests

helped

of

Germany

by

industrial

government

printing

currency

longer

initiated

possibly

regardless

war,

economic

support

170

the

convulsed

reparations

Treaty

and

passive

along

the

Germany’s

For

were

to

of

–

in

possibility

payments,

end

and

default

any

that

events

Germany’s

lesson

Ruhr,

resorting

the

a

of

Versailles

a

occupation

of

area,

by

the

Germany

delirium”

result

in

provide

totalitarian

to

the

cope

system

the

basis

with

and

for

movements

the

crisis

contributed

the

growth

when

a

of

second

1929.

US

dollar

accumulated

pensions

were

was

over

worth

years

ruined

4.2

were

and

a

trillion

wiped

barter

German

out.

marks.

Those

economy

on

emerged.

C H A P T E R

While

4 . 1 :

there

T H E

were

E m E R g E n C E

beneciaries

o f

T H E

(those

A u T H o R i T A R i A n

with

access

to

s T A T E

foreign

i n

g E R m A n y,

currency

19 19 – 19 3 4

and

Dawes Pan (1924) those

with

outstanding

loans

that

could

be

paid

off

easily,

for

example,

the

This measure (under taken by the US German

industrialist

Hugo

Stinnes),

for

most

citizens

the

experience

was

to prop up the German and thus the one

of

misery.

The

government

of

Chancellor

Cuno

resigned

in

August

European economies, which had also 1923,

to

be

replaced

by

a

new

coalition

of

the

DDP ,

SPD,

Zentrum

and

suered from Germany’s collapse) DVP

under

Gustav

Stresemann.

Under

Stresemann,

recovery

from

the

allowed Germany to make economic economic

disaster,

aided

by

the

USA

in

the

shape

of

the

Dawes

Plan

of

improvements as well as reducing their 1924,

ushered

in

a

period

known

as

the

Golden

Era

(1924–1929).

annual reparations payments that had

But

of

before

the

Germany

seized

the

uprisings

Hitler’s

or

KPD)

against

proved

sentencing

the

the

an

time.

imprisonment,

in

to

(also

inglorious

In

Mein

Hitler

In

the

known

to

case

as

the

written

or

by

of

NSDAP)

staging

the

the

their

during

or

that America’s expor t-driven economy

Socialists,

trial

and

period

A new currency (the Rentenmark) replaced

the worthless mark in November 1923

nationally

brief

would benet – and prevented the

growth of communism in Germany.

Munich,

subsequent

his

occupation of the Ruhr. The aid ensured

had

National

ideology

precipitated their default and the 1923

Party

unsuccessful

November,

although

articulate

Kampf,

(Communist

Party

situation

failure,

Nazis

Hamburg

(Nazi

the

government.

the

in

Munich

exploit

Putsch”

allowed

rst

extremists

and

opportunity

“Beerhall

Putsch)

for

recovery,

and the American loans helped restore

of

condence in this new currency,

stated:

renamed the Reichsmark in 1924. All

great

passions

Distress

This

gain

as

Frank

the

but

the

suggests

Era

opportunity

to

of

made

of

provides

political

the

a

that

the

it

took

of

either

by

Hitler’s

1929

example

of

of

night”,

recovery

Great

of

human

Goddess

of

masses…

his

gamble

or

more

to

to

temporarily.

dream

the

could

only

achievements

extremism

of

National

Depression.

generally

economic

the

least

deprived

the

the

cruel

decade

at

“utopian

was

of

the

encouraged

abate,

black

onset

by

eruptions

amongst

another

did

1924–1929

the

out

him

very

from

Only

arises

a

volcanic

hurled

distress

distress

claimed,

with

stirred

world

social

such

classic

extremism

of

and

Weimar

possible

sentiments,

sentiments,

dark

ourish.

fortunes

Hitler

fact

that

McDonough

in

popular

rebrand

economic

prospered

Golden

are

emotional

by

of

power,

power

have

the

and

or

climate

seize

If,

movements

accepted

of

of

the

Socialist

The

view

rise

that

misery. l Ta

Thinking skills

The NSDAP’s 25-point programme Find the specic points of the 25-point The

NSDAP

was

ofcially

founded

in

1920,

a

renamed

version

of

Anton

programme at: avalon.law.yale.edu/imt/ Drexler’s

German

Workers’

Party

(DAP)

established

in

Munich

in

1919.

nsdappro.asp Originally

activities

of

a

tasked

of

such

25-point

by

military

groups,

intelligence

Hitler

programme,

and

joined

to

the

became

attend

party,

leader

of

and

report

helping

the

in

upon

the

NSDAP

in

the

drafting

Given the circumstances in Germany

in the early post-war years, and with

1921.

reference to the 25 points, answer The

programme

contained

a

mixture

of

points

that

could

be

pitched

to

the following: a

wide

audience.

Mussolini

claimed,

in

relation

to

Italian

fascism,

that,

1 “We

play

the

lyre

on

all

its

strings”

–

setting

out

a

range

of

Identify and explain what groups

offerings

or individuals (for example, social/ designed

to

appeal

to

as

many

as

possible.

The

NSDAP ,

by

its

very

change

economic/professional) might be of

name

from

the

original

DAP ,

suggests

a

similar

approach

to

targeting

attracted by specic points of the the

population.

programme and which might not.

If

the

intention

of

such

a

programme

was

to

ensure

mass

support,

it

2 failed

in

the

short

term.

Policies

in

the

programme

that

were

aimed

To what extent was the programme

at

“nationalist” and “socialist” in various

constituencies

in

Germany

–

whether

aggrieved

nationalists,

the

its oerings? industrial

example

working

–

were

population

economic

from

crisis

class,

already

farmers,

on

existing

of

1929

offer

party

and

by

small

other

allegiances

onwards.

proprietors/businessmen,

parties.

proved

Attempts

to

wean

unsuccessful

until

for

the

the

3

Which elements of the programme

suggested strong authoritarian and

anti-democratic tendencies?

171

4

A U H TO R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

Lack

of

putsch

support

in

followed

actions

the

the

to

KPD

December

1924

1928

12

9

11

dealt

21

Zentrum/BVP

of

apparatus

6

5

17

18

15

unwelcome

years

months

1929,

10

21

14

7

3

2

after

Faith

(the

9

7

in

the

in

in

to

the

the

which

Republic

the

was

the

to

served

by

that

justify

to

and

only

his

which

principles

Ludendorff

establishment

of

(one

it

of

Weimar)

Hitler

nine

important

Weimar

abortive

extent

democratic

acquitted

he

that

the

and

exhibited

fact

by

putschists

opportunity

Hitler

months

elements

remained,

for

in

of

many,

unloved.

a

leadership,

then

as

Foreign

period

of

remarkable

crisis

of

greatly

system

the

rst

Minister

hyperination

with

under

three

actively

(the

the

till

a

as

chancellor

his

recovery

and

violence

Stresemann

Reichstag

hostile

KPD)

NSDAP).

or

to

the

lost

of

was

elections

Republic

heavily

Conversely,

in

for

three

death

in

October

terms

of

economic

period

of

political

of

the

earlier

stability

reected

years.

in

the

1924–1928,

to

voting

the

the

in

SPD,

over

terms

which

the

of

period

electoral

was

made

left.

little

support

committed

to

the

14 parliamentary

*“Others” refers to par ties often based on

prove

individual states or regional interests or the

among

Independent Socialists (USPD), who had been a

challenges

signicant force before 1924 but which had split

in

by 1922, with most members nding new homes

during

within the KPD or SPD

enacted,

of

that

German

to

the

period

the

also

over.

of

to

and

these

appear

of

less

a

does

offer

the

not

profound

hope

that

measures

which

the

thrived

Stresemann

from

change

era,

were

opponents

support.

was

one

were

of

how

a

nation

enjoying

either

attractive

question

this

extremism

policy

misery

years

also

to

political

foreign

and

but

where

into

as

suffering,

reservoir

war

While

undergone

did

democracy

one

threw

it

Just

inspiration

during

gains.

had

economic

the

their

hostile

was

whole,

economic

ravages

these

were.

a

and

of

remove

drew

Forces

and

as

signicant

Republic

were

Germany

period

obvious,

the

of

from

problems.

Yet

social

raft

helped

image

only

a

the

voters

of

which

made

to

Weimar

democracy

not

system,

attitudes

conditions

The

172

the

of

the

reinforced

over

Ludendorff

Stresemann’s

and

the

contrasted

progress

Others*

the

of

9

19

NSDAP

also

uphold.

presided

underlined

and

but

to

sentence,

Gustav

1923

ushered

Parties

DNVP

of

in

patterns

9

who

for

with

unsympathetic

bound

leniently.

ve-year

only

illustrated

trial

30

6

DVP

a

not

was

treason

Stage 3: the Golden Age, 1924–1929

that

DDP

leaders

with

Socialism

The

audience

was

sympathy

lack

state

The

26

system

The

growth

SPD

national

prison.

both

May

1923.

Hitler

Landsberg

the

1924

a

military

received

Par ty

National

constitutionally

were

Approximate % of vote for poitica par ties

provided

judicial

was

for

November

in

a

recovering

respite

retreat

or

developments

solid

the

from

its

quiescent.

were

achievements

of

C H A P T E R

4 . 1 :

T H E

E m E R g E n C E

o f

T H E

A u T H o R i T A R i A n

s T A T E

i n

g E R m A n y,

19 19 – 19 3 4

The achievements of the Stresemann era

●

Resolution of the Ruhr problem (the basis of

Italy acting as guarantors of the pact. Signicantly,

hyperination)

eastern frontiers did not form par t of the agreements

of the pact. Germany committed itself to making future

reparations payments. This promise, backed in

●

combination with the loans made to Germany by the

Recognition of Germany’s new status by the

Great Powers

USA, allowed French and Belgian forces to withdraw Germany, originally excluded from the League of

from the occupied Ruhr area and the resumption of Nations, was admitted in 1926. It now appeared

production of Germany’s industrial hear tland. as if the nation was being welcomed back into the

●

●

Restoration of Germany’s nances with US aid under

European family of Great Powers with its Council

the Dawes Plan of 1924

member position.

Suppression of physical threats from extremist

●

The Keogg-Briand Pact of 1928

movements in Hamburg and Munich in October and Signatory states renounced the use of force in the

November 1923 settlement of international disputes. Stresemann’s

●

Reconciliation with France in the Locarno Pact of 1925

signing on Germany’s behalf helped to convince

states that Germany was committed to peace and to In this pact, Germany stated its acceptance of its

establish a possible basis for diplomatic revision of western borders. All par ties (France, Germany, and

the Versailles Treaty. Belgium) renounced the use of force, with Britain and

The failures of the Stresemann era

●

The outcome of the trial of the putschists in

through Ar ticle 48 and a series of presidential

November 1923

cabinets, culminating with the appointment of Hitler as

chancellor in January 1933. This reinforced the fact that enemies of the Republic were

treated leniently, as long as they were of the nationalist

●

persuasion. This continued the earlier trend of treating

Germany’s reliance on US loans, which made it

vulnerable to problems should they be withdrawn

the perpetrators of political assassinations dierently Nationalist groups saw the Young Plan (proposed in

according to their political aliation. Left-wing murderers 1929, just before the death of Stresemann and the

on average served a 15-year sentence; right-wing Wall Street Crash) to reduce the reparation payments

murderers served four months. No right-wing murderer set by the Dawes Plan of 1924 and extend the period

was given the death sentence (out of 354 committed); 10 of repayment as a sign of the Republic’s continued

left-wing murderers were executed (out of 22 committed). weakness. It was seen as pandering to the Allied

●

The outcome of elections for a successor to President

powers and the Versailles Diktat.

Eber t after his death in February 1925 ●

Coalition governments

In April, the 78-year-old Hindenburg was elected. Continuing coalition governments were unlikely to

Kolb noted that this “began… a silent change in provide a rm foundation to deal eectively with major

the constitution, whereby – gradually and at rst economic or political problems.

barely perceptibly – the balance shifted in favour

●

Agrarian distress

of presidential power ”. Hindenburg, claimed Gay,

“smelled of the old order; he had been sold to the

Farmers’ debts accumulated as a result of decreasing

public in a demagogic campaign as the great man

food prices, leading to agrarian distress even before

above par ties”. As Stresemann himself noted in

the depression of 1929.

1925, “ The truth is, the Germans do not want a ●

Low industrial production

president in a top hat… He has to wear a uniform While

improving,

this

was

still

behind

other

and a chestful of medals”. developed

●

European

states.

Unemployment

The end of accountable government, 1930 figures

Under Hindenburg, accountable government was

before

hovered

the

crisis

around

of

the

million

mark

even

1929.

replaced, by March 1930, with a process of rule

173

4

A U H TO R I TA R I A N

●

S TAT E S

The reorganization of NSDAP

Volksgemeinschaft (the concept of the People’s

Community based on blood rather than class), the While extremist par ties made little electoral progress

establishment of youth and professional associations throughout the period, the NSDAP worked to reorganize

with par ty links (for example, associations for German itself as a national movement. The establishment of

physicians, teachers, jurists, craftsmen, and small a strong leadership principle (Führerprinzip) under

traders) and the use of propaganda aimed at exploiting Hitler, the appointment of Gauleiters (local area

the grievances of those in distress allowed the Nazis to leaders subordinate to Hitler), the promotion of the

exploit the crisis of 1929 onwards and garner suppor t.

The

movement’s

and

pursue

when

he

a

pronounced,

outshooting

their

for

own

Nazi

the

“made

Even

and

the

them,

in

appointment

at

of

Party

the

to

was

(DNVP)

Hitler,

Hugenberg’s

support

will

of

in

still

the

the

cloak

be

Wall

move

would

of

the

the

its

vital

as

did

German

“among

Republic”,

German

towards

increased

in

collapse,

of

the

by

proved

Hugenberg,

to

Hitler

than

guaranteed

leader

pariah

by

longer

Street’s

as

attempts

stated

preparation

1928.

himself

putsch

was

takes

grave-diggers

government

to

them

result

of

more

power

Hugenberg

Depression,

able

any

to

period

aftermath

Alfred

anti-democratic

rebel,

the

This

self-appointed

overtures

before

reject

road

outvoting

least

the

of

People’s

crowd

to

“If

constitution.”

success

National

the

decision

parliamentary

had

politics”.

authoritarian

pace.

Hitler,

respectability

that

provide.

Stage 4: decline (1930–1933)

The

“Golden

accurately

USA,

the

economy,

structure

glimmers

On

3

of

which

did

so

proved

collapsed,

was

of

Later

together

that

a

in

fragile

–

faith

in

with

the

coalition

the

stock

might

of

on

rescue

America’s

economic

of

any

system.

political

ministries

market

When

Weimar’s

from

to

abandonment

Weimar

“the

aid

Years”

sword.

the

more

Foreign

“Golden

nature

along

era

Years”.

the

Stresemann,

the

month,

“Gilded

double-edged

the

growing

Stresemann

as

much

revealed

October 1929,

bound

the

described

the

economy

▲

Years”

be

of

cement

those

Wall

which

years”,

Street

died.

collapsed.

Simplicissimus, 2 1 March 1927: the caption at the bottom

The

impact

on

Germany

was

huge:

the

country

plunged

reads, “They carry the initials of the institution, but who

rapidly

into

depression,

as

short-term

credits

from

the

exhibits the spirit?”

US

were

soared,

recalled.

from

September

workers

–

1.3

million

1930,

by

Unemployment

in

peaking

early

gures

September

at

just

over

(high

1929

6

to

even

more

million

–

a

before

than

third

3

of

the

crisis)

million

all

in

German

1933.

The growth in suppor t for ex tremism

The

not

economic

unique

buckled

the

to

under

in

only

voting

“the

174

that

did

but

it

which

enveloped

the

with

of

in

the

of

the

Germany

Great

that

elements

appeared

unable

Depression

the

political

mobilized

to

deal

were

system

against

with

the

nation.

the

(1930–1933)

object

impacts

was

Anti-republican

system,

frustration

returns

primary

psychological

pressure.

parliamentary

catastrophe

Not

and

Germany

Republic

but,

as

industrial

produce

Kolb

pointed

leaders

(after

a

move

out,

it

to

extremes

became

1929–30)

to

deprive

C H A P T E R

Reichstag

T H E

of

government”,

E m E R g E n C E

power

which

parliamentarianism

unions.”

The

extremist

decree

after

and

of

were

March

allow

the

aided

the

when

an

authoritarian

to

state’,

vested

by

A u T H o R i T A R i A n

them

‘party

these

1930,

T H E

establish

would

actions

parties

and

o f

wage

social

interests

“a

last

democracy

and

truly

system

ruthless

the

implementation

the

s T A T E

and

rule

accountable

g E R m A n y,

of

ght

growth

of

i n

1

trade

support

collapsed

over

the

issue

of

unemployment

political outlook before and after 1933.

presidential

government

insurance

Find out what type of publication

Simplicissimus was – its origins and

for

of

2

Weimar

Research and thinking skills

against

the

in

by

19 19 – 19 3 4

l Ta

the

4 . 1 :

Bearing in mind the date of the

payments.

above front-page illustration and that

From

then

on,

Weimar

representatives

making

was

in

of

the

the

was

constitution

during

a

common

The

day

was

after

“Hunger

which,

to

landowners,

de

The

failure

political

parties

New

of

the

Papen

of

January

the

urging

the

president’s

(of

a

As

son

made

Weimar

written

wolf

his

–

on

had

way

belief

the

bursts

such

July

of

von

Papen’s

30

deal

January,

a

plan

large

Von

Almanach

royalty

it

economic

decline

and

contained.

and

gains

to

was

a

votes

who

for

for

extreme

secretary

point

the

–

Otto

the

KPD.

Meissner

of

for

in

with

and

chancellor

elections

support

Von

resigned

along

position

when

popular

for

the

himself

Hindenburg

offered

declining

in

support

Schleicher,

at

decrees

under

(the

aristocrats

the

of

misery.

chancellor.

electoral

Nazi

Election

the

European

of

welfare

for

growth

of

affect

Cabinet”

electoral

Hindenburg’s

revealed

the

the

1932.

advice

Hitler

fuel

Brüning’s

new

as

reduced

emergency

by

of

with

witnessed

by

as

“Barons’

continued

of

of

the

of

with

policies

followed.

adversely

as

suppor t for Weimar?

1930),

Hindenburg,

worried

directory

to

and

provided

revealed

aid

what point was being made about

the

him

known

economic

that

when

would

growth

that

the

the

in

government…

(i.e.

Hitler

relation

ock,

so

misuse

he

could

to

newspaper

the

the

constitution

that

Nazi

into

into

constitution

Goebbels,

in

von

and

March

circumstances

the

Papen

for

1932

a

1930

with

the

elections

Oskar

destroying

Papen’s

1928,

on

distress

new

the

and

of

appointment

surrounding

(27

taxation

Left

President

interests

his

became

preponderance

cabinet

but

who

decision-

the

of

the

NSDAP .

commented:

in

Von

as

to

the

replaced

cabinet)

Hitler

about

as

was

November

Bracher

the

be

the

that

responsible

Right,

to

It

of

cabinet

which

senile

the

economic recovery was under way,

elected

government.

deationary

him

to

in

practice,

democratic

dismissed

von

reference

pro-Nazis

coalition

previous

Franz

Papen’s

of

1932

was

referred

a

his

these

changes

in

to

economic

May

rule

interests

increased

in

to

the

in

increasingly

circle

of

from

cabinets”,

In

September

November

the

1933.

of

–

was

resigned,

in

because

in

of

power

power

distress.

Müller

parties

He

Reichstag

elections

extremism

on

of

an

Brüning ,

of

surrounding

von

unrest

in

until

was

Cabinet

the

parties

brought

nobility)

of

period

agrarian

cabinet

Gotha

higher

the

Reichstag

those

a

Heinrich

Hindenburg.

from

Papen’s

the

by

shift

few,

the

of

because

extremist

implement

with

emphasis

governed

by

advice

in

the

for

Brüning

issued

their

select

period

collapse

a

“presidential

unsympathetic

antagonized

for

support

the

to

a

determined

appointed

with

propaganda

results

the

Chancellor”

benets,

of

entrusted

outlook

Hindenburg

people

hands

Hindenburg

chancellors

experienced

be

Article

taken

an

the

48),

oath

controlled

Weimar

Der

we

had

through

of

authoritarian

and

to

“We

proved

come

set

defend.

parliamentary

Angriff,

gap

immediately

as

false.

As

early

government,

enemies;

as

had

the

come.”

175

4

A U H TO R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

While

Gay

in

it

was

claimed

all

but

not

yet

that,

name,

unscrupulous

the

(which

●

the

foundered,

remained

the

victim

not

of

the

German

allowed

●

the

it

of

exploit

propaganda

Socialism

of

to

and

world

of

on

that

a

but

sought

to

hindsight

Republic

reluctant

historic

major

consistent)

the

the

Left

an

to

and

in

use

dead

defenders,

of

deliberate

change

Peter

was

legacy

because

combine

ideological

Nazi

murder.”

Nazi

policy

of:

Hitler

against

a

campaign

as

a

with

waged

Hitler

to

by

the

in

the

interests

of

enemy

movement

organization

opportunities

portray

aws,

situation

any

with

“The

(communism)

against

regional

1933,

industrialists,

elites

threat

reorganization

South

and

because

parties

self-preservation

●

of

January

appointment,

structural

remarkably

greater

failure

of

disastrous

collaboration

perceived

●

a

in

Hitler’s

aristocrats

authoritarianism,

Weimar

obvious

with

in

its

expansion

national

the

the

onset

Nazis

saviour

of

one

of

to

by

the

from

a

1929,

which

depression

promote

Germany

National

in

its

time

trouble.

Source skills

Below

are

a

secondary,

and

series

of

focusing

Hitler’s

coming

sources,

on

to

the

primary

last

years

and

of

held

democracy

by

ofce.

in

35

Thuringia

per

grounds

cent],

for

vanished,

hope:

mass

where

the

the

liberal

the

Nazi

vote

Vössische

‘nimbus

propaganda

of

has

had

dropped

Zeitung

constant

lost

its

saw

success

has

sensational

Source A appeal,

the

Reichstag eection resuts: September 1930–November

deaf

ears.

1932 (showing number of deputies and % of nationa vote)

Optimism

The

September

Juy 1932

recovery

British

of

promises

health

abroad,

too.

scholar-seer

can

fall

Harold

of

the

on

commence.’

Laski,

London

the

School

November

of

1930

Economics,

thought

that

Nazism

was

a

spent

force.

1932

Exhibiting

KPD

77 (13.1%)

89 (14.3%)

100 (16.9%)

SPD

143 (24.5%)

133 (21.6%)

121 (20.4%)

issues

was

DDP (known

superlative

returned

Left-wing

Par ty

most

20 (3.8%)

4 (1.0%)

2 (1%)

how

unerring

hopelessly

destined

Bavarian

as Deutsche

an

he

to

wrong,

spend

village,

had

capacity

Laski

the

ruled

the

get

the

predicted

evening

reminiscing

nearly

to

in

of

a

that

his

beer

major

life

Hitler

in

a

garden

about

Reich.

Staatspar tei Burleigh,

M.

2000.

The

Third

Reich:

A

New

History

after 1930)

Zentrum/BVP

87 (14.8%)

97(15.7%)

90 ( 15%)

DVP

30 (4.5%)

7 (1.2%)

11 (1.9%)

DNVP

41 (7%)

37 (5.9%)

52 (8.3%)

NSDAP

107 (18.3%)

230 (37.3%)

196 (33.1%)

Source C

Kurt

NSDAP

the

NB:

‘Other

parties’

have

not

been

included

Lüdecke,

described

make

up

only

a

very

small

by

diary

and

percentages.

For

a

percentage

more

his

1938

that

December

of

Joseph

which

publication

had

1932,

I

knew

descended

citing

Goebbels,

indicated

on

excerpts

Hitler’s

Hitler,

the

from

the

despair

propaganda

within

the

party:

of

December seats

in

gloom

as chief,

they

the

6:

The

(Nazi)

situation

in

the

Reich

is

complete

catastrophic. table

see

Eberhard

(Routledge,

Kolb’s

The

Weimar

Republic

2004). December

worries

8:

Severe

render

all

depression

systematic

prevails…

work

Financial

impossible…

The

Source B danger

Analysing

the

November

and

December

results,

[the

latter

were

communal

of

the

whole

Party’s

going

to

pieces…

hours

on

end

the

Führer

walks

anxiously

up

and

elections down

176

exists

1932 For

election

now

the

hotel

room…

Once

he

stops

and

merely

says:

C H A P T E R

“If

4 . 1 :

the

things

T H E

Party

in

E m E R g E n C E

should

three

ever

minutes

break

with

a

o f

T H E

up,

I’ll

A u T H o R i T A R i A n

make

an

end

s T A T E

i n

released

of

on

the

lift

17:

Party

the

decide

organization

December

rally

We

the

to

work

organization…

20:

We

Party

up

must

once

with

and

again,

see

in

summon

all

if

spite

all

our

we

of

our

crisis

21:

Detlev

of

all.

strength

to

Peukert

Classical

and

discord…

The

nancial

so

possible

that

in

a

few

days

a

will

have

chance

a

helped

the

conference

with

Papen.

There

as

well

the

Nazi

movement

organization

of

the

in

SA

as

for

Röhm,

in

1922

and

party.

being

given

responsibility

the

the

leadership

will

and

in

was

with

it

the

to

the

result

seems

last

Republic:

of

clear

normal

come…

of

the

The

the

that

The

election

the

Crisis

is

present

Reichstag

elected

functioning,

National

Party.

He

was

a

SA

leader

killed

close

in

June

1934.

permitted

to

the

Lüdecke

go

into

where,

in

1938,

the

hesitation

Genuine

one

friend

election

Reichstag

even

if

the

is

Zentrum

if

it

Socialists,

seems

middle-class

in

the

which

it

interests

will

parties

no

of

do

longer

the

exist.

purge

of

survived

political

book

consolation

could

was

Socialists

be

have

the

recognition

passed

their

that

peak…

but

of this

stands

the

fact

that

the

radicalism

of

the

the has

unleashed

a

strong

radicalism

on

the

Left.

the

exile

communists

have

made

gains

everywhere

and

in thus

Switzerland

be

time

National

The

purge

Weimar

for

Right

SA

The

politically,

incapable

against

Ernst

its

paramilitary

the

fundraising

catastrophe;

Europe.

a

The

force

of

The

opens.

joined

in

1991.

because

long

without

Lüdecke

German

devastation

Reich.

the

goes new

at

fearful

totally Führer

the

Third

Source F

for is

become

the

the

Modernity.

election

It

had

be

of

more.

Altercation

29:

to

energies

means

cannot

continues.

December

19 19 – 19 3 4

destructive

crisis

was

Looked

December

the

German

revolver .”

result December

g E R m A n y,

internal

political

disturbances

have

become

produced. exceptionally

soberly

the

bitter.

If

situation

things

is

such

are

faced

squarely

that

more

than

and

half

the

Source D German The

decisive

factor

(which

substantially

January

1933)

was

the

careless

playing

projects

and

the

present

associated

Papen-Hugenberg-Hindenburg

group.

state,

activity

would

ambitious

and

exploiting

tiny

minority

leadership

able

to

self-assurance

the

in

into

achieve

totalitarian

fact

helped

positions

of

that

their

of

mass

the

was

they

against

have

As

the

not

said

lesser

of

what

many

sort

of

evils

state

to

I

think,

would

be

the

open

assumption

be

of

Believing by

the

present

government.

taming

movement,

National

power

own

it

but

accept.

dictatorship with

themselves

of feared,

the

declared

with they

further-reaching

have

facilitated the

30

people

this

Interior

Socialist

had

not

Wilhelm

been

of

the

Külz

(DDP

Minister

/Staatspartei),

and

November

Mayor

1932

of

former

Dresden,

Reichstag

Weimar

writing

election.

accord.

Source G

Karl

Dietrich

Weimarer

Bracher.

1955.

Die

Auösung

der

In

Republik.

January

imagined

were

1933

that

the

they

mistaken.

German

had

They

taken

soon

upper

classes

Hitler

prisoner.

found

that

they

They

were

Source E in

Hitler’s

broad-based

totalitarian

movement

was

the

of

toppling

the

Republic

on

its

own,

despite

of

roughs

that

it

had

attained

an

astonishing

level

of

and

had

become

the

voice

of

a

good

of

Germans

as

the

crisis

deepened….

By

the

the

1932

the

NSDAP

had

plainly

reached

the

electoral

potential

and

was

showing

signs

up,

limits

same,

once

again…

After

1930

the

of

presidential

what

was

left

of

the

republican

if

created

a

power

vacuum

authoritarianism

which

proved

their

unable

nally

own

to

the

new

with

the

governing

National

elite

consortium,

Socialist

a

strike:

he

a

deplores

for

his

workpeople

who

are

the

being

and

intensely

leader

dislikes

whom

he

the

has

bad

manners

called

he

pays

the

price

and

discovers,

in.

All

soon

if

does)

he

does

he

will

not

be

pay

shot

the

in

price

the

(later,

back.

The

chief

his

sits

cigars,

in

the

managing

nally

takes

over

director’s

the

ofce,

concern

moves

ll…

Such

was

the

experience

of

the

owning

In in

Germany

after

1933.

in AJP

partnership

up

constitution

classes

1933,

sorry

that

he

himself.

towards

break

regimes

smokes

and

to

falling

gangster

destroyed

employs

of

even

back

is

gangster

enough,

its

who

end the

of

owner

oneof

third

factory

political beaten

dynamism

a

the violence,

fact

of

not gang

capable

position

Taylor.

1945.

The

Course

of

German

History

movement,

177

4

A U H TO R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

Source H

Hitler

Questions

was

preferred

the

the

last

solution

traditional

consensus

the

chance,

for

elites.

elites

the

not

the

rst

choice

overwhelming

Despite

their

themselves

or

the

majority

1

of

too

diverse

in

their

anti-democratic

were

alternative

too

does

according

to

mount

to

of

a

deliberate

the

elites

to

conspiracy…

embark

upon

to

Given

In

fact

the

that

30

January

1933

represents

the

strategies

and

of

typically

the

goal

of

reactionary

bankruptcy

an

of

might

The

behaviour

of

their

was

own

characterized

strength

modalities

of

the

and

new

by

an

Kershaw,

Der

30

Januar

different

What

could

of

und

Anfang

des

to

1932,

the

and

result

of

conservative

the

November

worrying?

explain

of

the

the

relatively

consistent

Zentrum/BVP

4

With

why

aus

economic

turmoil

in

this

(1930–1932)?

of

the

politics.

Ausweg

of

reference

those

to

sources

hostile

believe

to

that

B

and

National

the

C,

explain

Socialism

danger

of

right-wing

by

1932.

der

extremism Krise

beginning

autumn

power

overestimation

1933:

was

by

businessmen

election

might Ian

economy

essentially

underestimation

mass

NSDAP

“counter-

the

an

KPD

the

of

period groups

of

A?

recovery

nd

performance revolution”.

the

the

3 traditional,

of

that

risk

1932 their

source

the

signs

politicians of

from

be

why willingness

performance

differ

fragmented

visions

show able

the

(1930–1932)

2 and

How

had

passed

late

Staatsverfalls.

5

What

motive

could

von

Papen

have

for

Source I approaching

6

Explain

30

7

the

January

According

Adolf

Hitler

reference

in

at

this

source

8

What

the

to

Bracher,

with

phrase

plans

what

In

what

strength

echo

10

those

According

to

was

Bracher

“taming

does

shown

government

of

use

this

and

in

to

of

the

their

describe

“group”

in

exploiting

Peukert’s

view

Socialism

in

sources

Peukert,

in

aim

the

movement”?

National

to

the

group

leadership?

attitude

mass

ways

of

Nazi

does

for

totalitarian

9

the

misguided

their

D

1933.

Papen-Hugenberg-Hindenburg

dealings

stage?

when

Germany

by

B,

C

had

ceased

of

the

late

1932

and

D?

democratic

to

exist

effectively?

11

What

elite

is

meant

entered

a

Socialism

12

voters

in A-I-Z, 16 October 1932. The main caption reads, “The meaning

of the Hitler salute”, followed by “Millions stand behind me”

and, at the bottom, “Little man asks for big gifts”.

178

the

phrase

which

“partnership”

in

According

revealing

▲

by

consortium”,

“governing

Peukert

with

claims

National

1933?

to

Külz,

fact

towards

November

what

about

the

the

was

“present

1932?

the

attitude

most

of

state”

German

in

Germany

4

A U H TO R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

communist-inspired

of

Friedrich

We

refuse

erection

the

of

crushing

the

following

vilied

the

working

the

at

the

as

with

“social

from

the

fascists”

goals

KPD

to

be

be

–

in

by

the

were

and

murder

traitors

capitalist

party

that

believed

lunatics

Berlin

and

the

tranquil

by

to

which

default

be

of

to

its

the

leaders

the

KPD

distracted

aided

the

capitalism’s

led

workers’

democracy.

encouragement,

a

government

declared:

terrorized

and

SPD

–

Weimar

1919

safeguarded.

bourgeois,

Moscow’s

Marxist

what

must

the

a

SPD-led

established

uprising

that

of

last

the

January

ourselves

long

Germany

KPD

by

of

In

openly

the

growth

hired

of

thugs:

NSDAP .

1929,

such l Ta

Thinking skills

allow

be

supporters

SPD

and

…

uprising

manifesto

Spartacus

years,

class

capitalism

the

by

and

to

must

new

of

accusations

SPD

longer

Order

movement

In

any

Spartacus

The

criminals.

The

to

Ebert.

as

disrupt

The

the

the

Communist

SPD

the

whose

essential

programme

International

“principal

militant

maintained

unity

that

(Comintern)

function

of

the

“social

at

the

railed

present

proletariat

democracy

…

of

against

time

is

against

all

parties

to

capital”.

shades”

had

In what way does the SPD election poster become

“the

last

reserve

of

bourgeois

society

and

its

most

reliable

suppor t the view that the relationship support”.

The

hostility

between

these

two

parties

of

the

Left

was

not

between the Social Democrats and the resolved

until

it

was

too

late.

By

March

1933,

Hitler

was

in

a

powerful

KPD was, at this critical time, very poor? position

as

chancellor

and,

by

August

1934,

as

Führer.

Stage 6: the establishment of the Führer state,

August 1934

After

1933–1934,

of

Adolf

to

the

Hitler’s

position

accurate.

The

organization

that

would

despair

In

1937

the

G.

has

the

arrival

at

the

It

the

and

its

Press

There

180

subjected

Ascribing

errors

had

with

seize

and

of

other

the

others

worked

to

rise

is

the

of

only

steadily

to

movements

opportunities

propaganda.

movement

a

with

was

offered

partly

build

of

by

beliefs

Hitler

the

the

up

its

Right

years

of

equipment;

an

German

zest

and

of

Hitler

thoroughly

from

was

for

Nazi

by

no

success

of

prison:

than

Landsberg

the

organization

Nazis

and

means

departmentalized

for

the

Party’s

his

conned

the

until

to

framework

it

had

for

intimate

bureaux

advisers;

throughout

for

dealing

a

the

political

country;

with

labour

matters.

motor

contracts

fund

his

extending

and

nancial

large

insurance

and

gradually

organization;

passed

more

release

to

Landsberg

government”.

interests,

corps

contribution

from

campaign

expanded

consisting

which

the

power

Their

sub-divisions

technical

on

Hitler

Hitler’s

With

“shadow

propaganda

of

for

between

agricultural

were

release

Chancellorship.

supply-services

Party

themselves

1945.

the

links

prepared

years

“Cabinet”,

questions,

to

to

1923,

commented

the

Party

became

department,

a

them

Price

eight

Nazi

had

since

establish

after

any

during

virtually

until

1929.

Ward

speeches

found

chancellor

enable

taken

Never

of

of

NSDAP ,

and

after

steps

Germans

movement,

the

for

and

aerial

uniforms,

dependents

of

transport;

banners

and

members

killed

C H A P T E R

or

4 . 1 :

injured

lawsuits

T H E

in

in

commanding

Turner

they

money

sought

the

to

as

of

and

the

had

made

other

press

Nazis

and

by

conservative

by

nancing

by

crisis

against

a

the

the

19 19 – 19 3 4

the

defence

Storm

lines

Evidence

Flick

and

the

Troopers

under

the

indicates

the

IG

NSDAP ,

parties.

years,

in

the

g E R m A n y,

Himmler.

non-socialist

the

i n

conducted

lastly

military

towards

premiums”

Hitler

dangers

of

many

was

were

sense

As

that

eventuality

HA

investing

of

a

they

capture

who

to

of

able

the

not

the

form

and

of

the

to

UFA

passions

vehicle

for

the

just

signicant

whom

Young

Plan

Hitler

in

1929,

communications

chain).

hatreds

as

seen

in

Harzburg

as

potential

empire

Hugenberg,

masquerading

propaganda

movements

himself

as

with

cinema

and

Nazi

industrialists

portray

was

Hugenberg’s

right-wing

to

but,

portray

NSDAP

be

for

having

Nazis

cast

themselves

population.

and

in

in

a

the

link

October

leader

to

meeting

of

1931,

against

the

This

by

was

late

1932,

chancellor

as

in

the

were

their

the

what

not

a

despite

While

can

be

post-1929

vote,

choice

they

of

convinced

a

drop

for

attributed

majority)

committed

the

reasons

found

to

all

enabled

points

the

signicant

important

years.

of

of

groups

factors,

message

the

National

part

electoral

other

the

depression

to

in

Hitler’s

of

Not

Nazi

Socialists

Germany’s

to

collaborate l Ta

them

of

(although

attractive

the

by

underestimated.

position

voters

Socialism

voted

package

other

opposition

to

political

a

DNVP ,

Hugenberg,

communism.

German

National

the

the

leader

over

access

provided

should

accession

in

leaders,

popularity

support,

especially

DNVP

cause

with

lm

and

military

where

the

insatiable

convictions”,

Nazis,

of

common

the

“animated

with

on

Friederich

other

insurance

parties,

“alliance”

provided

The

to

and

Heinrich

contributions

insurance

political

and

required

branch

represented

organized

Röhm

industrialists,

“political

legal

involved,

were

(SS)

Thyssen,

contributed

out,

“buy

Ernst

made

A

s T A T E

government ”.

Funding

(both

also

pointed

A u T H o R i T A R i A n

frequently

Government

Fritz

group

T H E

communists.

was

organization

as

o f

Guards”

ofcers,

such

chemical

although

the

“Protection

impressive

magnates

the

Party

actual

their

Farben

to

an

and

that

all

of

the

with

the

(SA)

Such

as

clashes

which

departments

of

E m E R g E n C E

1933.

Research and communication

skills

The

ability

to

remain

consistent

in

policy,

combined

with

the

fear

factor

1 of

1930–1933,

allowed

Hitler

to

put

himself

forward

as

a

Read the ar ticle “ Who voted for the

national

Nazis?” by Dick Geary (History Today, saviour.

It

also

convinced

the

political

elite

to

“hire”

him

to

rescue

Vol. 48 (10), October 1998 available at Germany

from

further

descent

into

political

and

economic

chaos,

from

http://www.johndclare.net/Weimar6_ which

only

the

KPD

seemed

to

be

beneting.

Geary.htm).

David

Schoenbaum

described

these

ideas,

set

out

in

Mein

Kampf,

as

2

“the

jail-born

reections

of

a

frustrated

revolutionary”,

but

in

Identify the par ticular appeal to voters

the

(by gender and social class) of the

hothouse

of

discontent

after

1929,

they

struck

a

chord

with

many

NSDAP , 1928–1932.

Germans.

Whether

Germans

who

voted

for

the

NSDAP

agreed

with

all

3 the

ideas

is

debatable,

but

a

vote

for

National

Socialism

was

a

vote

in

In groups, discuss the par ticular

a

appeal of the NSDAP to specic sense

for

the

package.

Nationalists,

anti-Semites,

and

anti-communists

sectors of German society, and why may

have

been

attracted

to

individual

elements

but

the

National

other sectors appear to have been Socialist

state

and

Hitler

proved

consistent

in

its

pursuit

of

all

the

relatively immune to the Nazi appeal. elements

once

in

power.

181

4

A U H TO R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

Revisionism:

desire

the

to

overturn

the

Versailles

“Diktat”

Palingenesis:

the

nation,

the

rebirth

purged

of

of

nonVolksgemeinschaft:

Germanic

elements. the

National

Socialism

emphasis

−

“Folk”

to

a

glorious

and

forward

greater

a

united

German by

past

−

looking community

back

on

was the

“Janus-faced”

to

blood

and

ethnicity

a

future

National

Socialism:

key Rejection

ideas

of Greater

egalitarianism

inclusion outright

hostility

of

enlarged

German

perceived

expansion

of

living

of

in

space

as (Lebensraum)

divisive

in

state.

which search

were

the

Germans

and Eventual

communism,

all

to an

democracy

Germany:

and

for

the

the German

people

community

Totalitarianism:

the

Social

Führerprinzip

view

(leadership

principle),

hierarchical,

party

▲

society:

Aryan

a

(racial)

superiority

one-

heavy

state

with

anti-Semitic

emphasis

The ideas of National Socialism

In

early

in

the

1933

the

the

following

dictatorship,

Roger

by

and

Grifn

For

those

a

came

the

still

the

part

Party

August

the

appearance

under

in

one’s

rather

of

a

coalition

convert

1934

position

at

the

Swastika

of

Hitler

certainties

its

own

of

on

of

itself

the

government.

into

death

Führer

Hitler

the

of

a

Only

virtual

Hindenburg

(combining

party

box.

its

…

into

and

the

which

the

Weimar

or

the

and

ofce

of

a

the

before

society,

future,

no

sense

sense

as

despite

awake”,

regeneration

order

could

a

a

reaction

1928,

“Germany

mystic

new

state

for

alchemically

of

middle-class

SA

slogan

of

order

hope

the

connotations

embodiment

movement

present

anti-Semitism

ballot

the

the

at

country,

the

with

as

spell,

despair

than

build-up

showing

and

by

of

generalized

This,

for

omnipresent

hopes

a

foreigner

accounts

pathetic

Hitler,

did

president).

who

belonging.

were

wrote:

transformed

being

Nazis

months

conrmed

adoption,

chancellor

182

Darwinist

of

could

longer

of

of

such

the

the

and

the

symbolize

provide.

the

of

4.2

Hiter ’s consoidation of power,

1934–1935

Cocptu udstdg

Key questions

➔

To what extent was Nazi rule by 1933–1934 the result of conservative

groups, fearful of the Left, “hiring” Hitler?

➔

To what extent did Nazi foreign policy help to keep the regime in power?

➔

What were the major foreign policy objectives and actions under taken by

the regime?

Key concepts

➔

Signicance

➔

Continuity

Nazis

used

the

appointment

points

of

out,

political

on

“at

bribery

to

and

combat

his

“Machtergreifung”

Hitler

rst,

reality”.

converting

obstacles

term

of

his

Nazi

this

chancellor

was

From

the

more

He

to

one

was

political

(seizure

in

a

January

position

rule.

both

as

able

elite

to

to

do

this

the

of

by

describe

than

1934

control

Left

to

although,

hope

August

complete

and

power)

1933

statement

1933

of

of

January

using

a

the

Eatwell

description

Hitler

by

as

focused

eliminating

intimidation

opposition

failed

and

to

moves.

Ht s Chco

The

to

decision

seek

to

November

his

German

for

the

as

rst

elections

election

Reichstag

Ministry

that

new

Nazi

chancellor

states)

believed

call

1932

position

Prussian

to

improve

of

and

the

time

the

and

Frick

as

March

Given

take

Interior

NSDAP

in

vote.

in

gures,

Weimar’s

that

he

advantage

(Prussia

National

was

1933

which

of

troubled

was

of

being

Minister

capable

was

had

now

the

the

of

able

roles

of

largest

the

achieving

Hitler’s

declined

attempt

in

the

to

use

Göring

by

Interior,

an

far

it

absolute

of

as

the

was

majority

history.

The burning of the Reichstag

The

burning

before

the

frighten

against

van

der

acting

a

down

March

voters

a

larger

NSDAP

into

supposed

Lubbe

alone,

of

a

communist

stood

to

Reichstag

giving

KPD

was

was

the

election,

has

their

victim

of

27

There

for

the

the

for

is

re

the

little

but

Socialist

remains

from

February,

interpreted

National

conspiracy

most

on

support

uprising.

responsible

gain

been

as

a

week

Nazi

NSDAP

doubt

as

a

Hitler,

he

appears

according

so

to

bulwark

Marinus

subterfuge,

It

or

ploy

that

whether

unclear.

re.

a

was

or

part

that

to

of

the

Hermann

183

4

A U H TO R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

Rauschning

(who

“The

Reichstag

shall

intervene.”

described

how

subterranean

only

Van

a

few

der

as

a

of

the

Nazi

passage

was

attempt

dealt

with,

chancellor,

with

an

Using

Given

to

less

reported

entered

that

out

later,

the

and

the

they

incident

his

were

as

the

KPD

For

how

and

of

were

…

a

they

had

Brown

viewing

of

the

a

KPD

to

allowed

the

it

KPD

victims

the

unprepared

“crushing

by

anti-Nazi

The

re,

it

I

“Göring

discovered”.

which

Hitler,

And

that

beginning

with

woefully

of

the

the

ease

revolution.

dream

and

(author

for

remarked:

building

nearly

Rauschning

Münzenberg,

a

exile,

palace,

NSDAP

subsequent

regime),

intervene.

from

were

Münzenberg

the

the

to

Reichstag

President’s

executed.

blamed

the

with

of

a

were

defend

him,

murderous

as

pest

st”.

excuse

Hitler

temporarily

and

to

favour

opportunity

disposal

Willi

spark

carry

of

the

the

portray

appears

far

iron

the

d’état,

as

According

it

themselves,

tried

to

had

their

Terror)

conspiracy.

out

me

from

at

such

Hitler

insurrection.

Nazi

boys’

minutes

Lubbe

fell

gives

Rauschning

‘his

contemporaries

Book

later

Fire

that

Germany

persuaded

suspended

cornerstones

of

the

was

Hindenburg

basic

Nazi

rights

endangered

to

issue

and

an

“thus

by

a

communist

emergency

was

laid

one

coup

decree

of

the

that

legal

dictatorship”.

The March 1933 election

The

election

which

still

of

gained

not

an

March

288

absolute

anti-communist

campaigning.

8

at

per

cent

this

the

of

What

for

was

…

of

the

was

despite

in

in

a

leap

the

despite

the

characterized

Hitler

able

to

were

the

of

a

to

NSDAP ,

cent)

–

and

pre-election

DNVP

of

the

per

campaign

and

majority

value

unwilling

for

(43.9

Nazi

the

form

propaganda

voters

votes

propaganda

collaboration

the

in

Reichstag

the

their

coalition.

Reichstag

deliver

an

Even

re,

outright

Nazis.

signicant,

nearly

seats

that

with

German

the

resulted

647

majority

vote

and

majority

majority

of

hysteria

Only

the

stage,

1933

out

two-thirds

as

Richard

of

the

Evans

voters

had

has

lent

pointed

their

out,

support

to

was

that

parties

–

the

Nazis,

Eection resuts of the main par ties, the

nationalists,

and

the

communists

–

who

were

open

enemies

of

Weimar

March 1933 democracy.

Par ty

(Zentrum)

Resut (in approximate

allegiance

% terms)

KPD

12 (81 deputies)

Street

SA

SPD

18

DDP

1

Many

and

to

violence

members

order

measures

Zentrum/BVP

DVP

1

DNVP

8

The

KPD,

44

Reichstag

initiated

to

save

whose

itself

candidates

itself

a

by

had

and

all

from

a

the

KPD

and

was

principally

Bavarian

the

People’s

Centre

Party,

party

whose

vanished.

followed

Nazis

Germany

parties,

the

but

attacked

deputies

the

leaders

forbidden

had

gained

March

and

ofces.

the

elections

SPD

The

excuse

chaos

81

not

had

been

as

Nazi

paramilitary

breakdown

used

largely

or

been

deputies,

vote

on

arrested

organization.

removed

none

legislation.

after

While

from

was

2 parliament

184

preceded

for

by

Hitler

of

law

for

manufactured

by

tighter

the

themselves.

found

Others

Republic

voted

associate

14

Nazis

NSDAP

the

had

southern

(brownshirts)

organizations,

and

more

its

the

the

the

election

permitted

to

Reichstag

names

sit

of

lists

in

and

the

re,

communist

the

newly

party

elected

C H A P T E R

4 . 2 :

H I T l E R ’ S

C O N S O l I D A T I O N

O F

P O W E R ,

19 3 4 – 19 3 5

The Enabling Act and the end of democratic government

Hitler

introduced

decree

the

for

DNVP

KPD,

by

the

gave

in

re),

rights

the

and

of

surpassed.

(444

to

94

Through

Otto

death

an

Wels,

the

democracy

In

this

eternal

fact

case

the

to

The

The

the

of

had

to

be

and

the

it

the

of

the

he

the

after

protection

needed

those

the

with

the

Reichstag

for

except

into

cent

attending

for

majority

session,

“buying”

Vatican,

fascist

of

the

support

which

regime

Germany.

result

in

the

doomed

we

in

in

of

was

the

Enabling

Italy),

political

to

of

1929

Hindenburg

powers

session,

party

German

principles

Act

attended

be

the

the

had

Act

Catholic

already

democratic

signed

the

murder

the

Bill,

chancellor.

or

delivered

when

Social

of

gives

were

the

he

political

more

Whether

suicide

you

the

and

right

the

epitaph

for

declared:

Democrats

humanity

Act

March

was

brought

no

to

and

to

solemnly

justice,

profess

freedom

annihilate

1933

was

the

control

his

the

ideas

our

and

that

that

order

of

all

life

are

had

to

a

reached.

raft

institutions

rule.

make

capsule

revealed

of

Gleichschaltung

and

Nazi

Gleichschaltung

within

Institutions

movement,

to

cyanide

opposition,

prelude

Socialist

labour

in

concealed

for

process

guarantee

the

a

parliamentary

National

military,

under

with

tortured

implemented

committed

the

and

political

in

alone

and

meeting

arrested

Nazis

Act

Churches

per

guarantees

making

by

favour).

the

leader

his

basic

to

the

Enabling

Germany

the

Enabling

he

as

the

thus

constitutional

brutalization

passage

legislation

from

–

from

venue

two-thirds

attended

Bill

in

in

the

12

rule

coalition

indestructible.

were

of

new

the

to

His

debate.

hour,

the

No

and

that

he

level

for

historic

socialism.

in

of

SPD

and

allegiance

The

was

area

deputies

(the

banning,

his

eliminating

Zentrum/BVP

him

dictator.

SPD

the

buried

allow

him

the

who

with

would

House

the

voting

agreement

was

of

By

Church,

of

approval

transferring

remains

many

that

making

cent.

Opera

Catholic

bullying,

Weimar’s

per

offering

deputies

(with

an

less

52

favour

Bill

essentially

deputies

in

government

or

him

by

All

voted

made

Enabling

Kroll

the

SPD,

parties

an

years,

intimidating

meeting

of

four

the

power

civil

a

Literally, “coordination”: the means

such

as

service

reality.

whereby Hitler intended to consolidate

Nazi power over Germany. Described by

Sir Horace Rumbold (British Ambassador

to Berlin) as the attempt to “press

for ward with the greatest energy the

The purge of the civil service

creation of uniformity throughout every The

Law

for

the

Re-establishment

of

the

Civil

Service

of

April

1933

was

depar tment of German life”, the process enacted

to

avoid

the

difculties

that

had

plagued

Weimar.

It

constituted

aimed to identify and eliminate all a

purge

of

the

civil

service,

allowing

the

government

to

remove

elements

anti-Nazi elements. it

considered

to

be

not

dismissed,

offer

without

The

a

as

the

those

the

was

of

were

who

“ofcials

that

who

had

what

Party

to

to

they

are

whose

will

at

joined

the

in

and

loyal

all

not

of

Aryan

political

times

1933

as

to

hostile

public

descent”

activities

support

(the

before

the

This

“Old

were

hitherto

the

National

–

do

national

their

Socialism

employees

“cleansing”

Fighters”

September

“March

further

to

service

education.

Nazis

party

known

March

anyone

descent

diplomacy,

reward

became

after

remove

Jewish

judiciary,

attract

“Ofcials

state

reserve”.

opportunity

those

as

guarantee

intention

well

of

anti-Nazi.

or

1930)

Violets”:

was

Alte

as

those

in

as

the

elds

also

an

Kämpfer

well

who

as

–

to

joined

careers.

185

4

A U H TO R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

The abolition of trade unions and political par ties Socialism and National

The

labour

movement

was

associated

with

Leftist

inuence,

and

the

Socialism Nazis

sought

to

break

the

trade

unions

and

the

power

of

organized

“Socialism” in the Marxist sense was labour.

In

May

1933

such

organizations

were

abolished

and

replaced

not what was meant in the context of by

a

Nazi-run

organization

known

as

the

German

Labour

Front

(DAF).

National Socialism. Whereas the former Collective

bargaining

and

the

power

to

strike

were

forbidden

as

Hitler

the

of

labour”

was a political philosophy dedicated to announced

his

plan

to

re-establish

“social

peace

in

world

the complete over throw of capitalism and

replace

“discord”

with

“harmony”

in

the

interests

of

the

“people’s

and which stressed the primacy of the community”.

working class, Hitler ’s use of the term

was based on the idea of community –

the Volksgemeinschaft (characterized

by blood and ethnicity) rather than

class, which was held to be divisive. The

original 25-point programme contained

anti-capitalist elements, but the concept

of private proper ty and protection of

small businesses was emphasized.

The

all

single-party

political

BVP

of

a

voluntarily

Concordat

(signed

20

pressure

1933).

the

technically

the

dissolved

the

5

of

were

July)

National

Similarly,

Law

established

NSDAP

(on

the

promise

(under

accepted

was

except

between

July

or

Germany

and

state

parties

the

with

guarantees

for

the

the

Socialist

DVP

of

by

July

abolished.

and

job

prospect

state

the

and

security

in

of

when

Zentrum/

of

the

the

DNVP

Re-establishment

1933,

The

signing

Vatican

bowed

the

the

to

new

Civil

Service)

self-dissolution.

Some Nazis did reject the power of

big business (the Strasser brothers,

The Night of the Long Knives (1934)

for example) but Hitler was willing to

The

accommodate the major industrialists

of

during his rise to power (an example of

Long

purge

the

of

Germany’s

Sturmabteilung

Knives.

This

civil

(SA)

purge

service

through

was

carried

was

a

followed

series

out

of

for

a

on

30

murders

variety

June

the

of

by

a

Night

purge

of

the

reasons:

his pragmatism) in order to gain nancial ●

rivalry

between

its

leader

Ernst

Röhm

and

leading

Nazis

such

as

and political suppor t – much to the Heinrich

Himmler

(chief

of

the

SS)

and

Göring

irritation of these more radical elements

who, after 1933, expected more attention

●

the

claim

that

redistribute

to the material needs of the workers.

industrialists

●

the

fear

forces

Berliners

inside”

a

–

that

under

joked

members

as

to

the

but

the

1934

1934,

the

June

high

The

an

the

having

of

on

evidence

more

to

revolution”

distance

himself

to

from

fears

(physically)

retroactively

(and

with

to

the

but

SA-led

those

of

the

the

of

one

oppose

the

armed

ordinary

on

putsch,

the

Hitler

big

the

far

was

the

attempts

at

was

able

and

which

On

Relating

of

less

business)

regime.

Law

the

NSDAP ,

institution

murder

suppress

and

Red

supporters

the

passed

“to

of

members

his

justifying

necessary

an

SA

army.

outside

that

and

the

the

many

the

radical

Röhm

Measures

been

to

amalgamate

referring

accommodation

ability

Defence

“second

antagonize

“brown

leadership’s

government

as

SA,

–

to

would

little

terms

army

a

failed

to

3

by

July

National

victims

treason

of

and

treason”.

radical

control

186

the

was

had

ambitions

control

eliminating

for

had

elements

revolution”,

the

in

By

the

Emergency

30

his

planning

landowners)

Röhm’s

there

way

still

big

about

one

cards.

assuage

pave

and

was

(Hitler

“beefsteaks”

“socialist”

on

Röhm

wealth

of

in

threatened

the

Party

Führerprinzip

–

and

the

Party,

not

hence

only

the

eliminate

alongside

need

a

the

established

to

placate

perceived

rumours

groups

but

these

rival.

The

of

a

also

“second

Hitler’s

groups,

“blood

establish

purge”

of

C H A P T E R

the

Night

control

wing

his

of

of

but

of

the

brother

the

the

to

Party

Otto,

Beerhall

“rescuing”

Long

also

Knives

settle

–

the

who

was

scores

also

not

what

such

forced

were

from

H I T l E R ’ S

used

with

radicals

was

Putsch

Germany

4 . 2 :

as

into

only

had

Gregor

exile.

removed

C O N S O l I D A T I O N

to

the

P O W E R ,

pretext

from

of

19 3 4 – 19 3 5

under

as

the

(murdered)

enemies

the

SA

known

Strasser

Old

on

bring

become

O F

the

once

Left

and

days

more

chaos.

The administrative structures of the

new Reich

Political control of the NSDAP increased with the adoption

of new administrative structures for the new Reich based

on Nazi Par ty structures that had existed before 1933. By

1934 the state governments of Germany no longer existed

and were replaced by a scheme intended to enforce central

control and the hierarchical system of a totalitarian state.

The country was divided into Gaue (regions essentially

the same as the old states or Länder) under a Gauleiter

appointed by, and answerable to, Hitler. There were 32 such

Gaue in 1934 and 42 by 1945. Each Gaue was subdivided

into Kreis (district), Or t (town or city), Zell (street) and Block

(building). The purpose of the structure was to coordinate

Nazi control throughout the state and not only administer

but also, in conjunction with the Gestapo, supervise the

population of the Reich at all levels to enforce obedience

and conformity.

On

10

August

himself

the

removal

merge

a

1934

Führer

the

personal

of

SA

and

Hindenburg

the

Röhm

and

oath

of

army

whose

the

army

loyalty

died.

ambition

under

to

Hitler

( Reichswehr),

Adolf

his

announced

grateful

had

been

for

to

leadership,

swore

Hitler:

The cover of Kladderadatsch magazine, published

▲

I

swear

by

God

this

sacred

oath,

that

I

will

render 2 April 1933. The caption reads “Spring cleaning”.

unconditional

German

be

The

ready

Reich

as

now

that

and

surrendered

the

to

people,

soldier

had

the

Hitler,

supreme

to

been

and

increase

to

Adolf

risk

so

Führer

commander

my

life

at

any

grudging

constitution

of

the

numbers.

National

was

in

of

its

the

the

time

state

armed

for

this

forces,

oath.

acceptance

seduced

Satised

Socialist

of

by

by

the

and

the

of

and

will

…

the

possibility

“blood

became

a

of

purge”

it

servant

regime.

January

position

from

1933

that

to

of

August

leader

of

1934,

a

Hitler

coalition

successfully

government

transformed

to

ruler

l Ta

Between

his

and

brave

government

rearmament

of

a

institution

Weimar

obedience

Thinking skills

of

What process is being referred to in the a

single-party

state.

Coordination

or

Gleichschaltung

had

been

rapidly

illustration? What elements are being applied

to

consolidate

Nazi

rule

and

the

process

of

control

was

to

expand

swept away by the housewife? thereafter

to

maintain

it.

187

4

A U H TO R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

Ht ’s thods

Adolf

Hitler

Führer

Here

is

a

summary

of

the

methods

Hitler

used

in

his

rise

to

power.

Demonization

Groups Death

and

of

and

allegiance

to

oath

of

Hitler

rally

support

forces,

August

of

state

governments

replacement

centralized

were

identied

groups

as

hate

within

the

symbols

German

and

used

to

population.

the

to

unite

Jews

●

the

Marxist

●

the

“November

supposed

behind

threat

posed

by

enemies

the

the

of

Nazis’

policy

of

“negative

KPD,

Germany:

and,

in

Hitler’s

eyes,

the

SPD

and

with

Criminals”

–

those

who

signed

the

Armistice

of

structure.

KREIS,

BLOCK,

encouraged

against

●

11 GAU,

were

different

1934

cohesion”

Absorption

from

by

Groups armed

individuals

Hindenburg

personal

ORT,

July

November

1918

ZELL,

1934 ●

Weimar

“traitors”

who

signed

the

Versailles

“Diktat”

of

June

1919.

Violence, intimidation and murder Party

purge,

Night

●

of

the

Long

June

Knives,

The

Beerhall

Putsch

This

imitation

unsuccessful,

ensuing Dissolution

parties

of

all

except

July

Abolition

of

1923

1934

of

Mussolini’s

but

it

March

permitted

a

on

Rome

national

of

October

platform

for

1922

Hitler

at

was

the

trial.

political

the

NSDAP ,

1933

of

the

trade

unions,

May

Law

1933

for

the

Re-establishment

the

Civil

The

Service,

Enabling

March

of

April

1933

Act,

1933

Gleichschaltung

establishment

Führerstate

and

of

the

the

1933–34

▲

The caption on this poster reads: “The National Assembly, by its signature, is in agreement

with the peace treaty.”

▲

Hitler ’s consolidation of power,

1933–1934

●

Paramilitary

organizations

(the

Sturmabteilung/SA

and

later

the

Schutzstaffel/SS)

These

of

the

188

organizations

other

parties,

Weimar

era.

and

protected

won

Party

control

of

meetings,

the

disrupted

streets

of

the

Germany

meetings

during

C H A P T E R

●

Intimidation

Hitler

used

majority

●

SPD

pass

the

before

H I T l E R ’ S

C O N S O l I D A T I O N

O F

P O W E R ,

19 3 4 – 19 3 5

deputies

intimidatory

to

increased

of

4 . 2 :

tactics

Enabling

and

after

in

his

Bill

the

in

attempt

March

Reichstag

to

gain

1933;

re

in

the

street

two-thirds

violence

February.

Murder

According

political

and

to

Rudolf

murders

October

police

after

of

1933,

Diels,

Nazi

many

Hitler’s

head

of

the

opponents

by

the

SA

appointment

Gestapo

were

forces

as

in

carried

Prussia,

out

appointed

chancellor

in

500–700

between

as

March

auxiliary

January

1933.

Abuse of the democratic system

After

and

1923–1924,

the

pursuit

opponents

Goebbels

in

the

rather

made

are

Weimar

system

of

not

come

●

majorities

party

party

was

there

were

youth,

that

to

its

of

of

“outvoting”

enemies

his

them.

Nazi

tactics

in

pursuing

votes

clear:

party

republican

organized

parliament

We

of

a

72

come

the

is

as

that

for

good

institutions.

irresponsibility

our

goal.

enemies.

…

As

party

1930

Collaboration

with

industrialists)

and

DNVP

by

late

reasons

…We

the

see

main

rejects

in

the

cause

the

present

of

our

We

the

are

wolf

coming

attacks

neither

the

as

sheep,

so

Passing

to

of

of

the

two-thirds

by

to

there

1931

largely

there

25

were

and

000

800

positioned

SA

for

growth

members,

000.

separate

policymaking,

well

Bavarian/Munich-

Membership

were

sections

be

existing

political

early

Hitler

the

a

The

of

by

party

departments

and

the

1927

was

for

propaganda.

elections

and

onwards.

1932,

Appointment

according

and

1925

campaigning,

the

by

In

from

organization.

geographical

women,

allowed

NSDAP

national

000,

into

campaigns

●

and

signicant.

organized

●

nature

made

intimidation

box,

we.

based

●

and

path:

ballot

“outshooting”

the

he

dual

the

miseries.

neutrals.

Transformation

This

of

1928

increasing

or

simply

secret

In

a

through

anti-parliamentarian

believe

friends

than

constitution

steadily

Do

an

followed

power

no

Reichstag.

…We

Hitler

of

as

groups

such

as

(big

the

business/

Zentrum/BVP

and

1933.

chancellor

provisions

Enabling

interest

parties

Bill

of

the

by

by

Hindenburg:

perfectly

legal

constitution.

more

than

the

required

majority.

Propaganda

Joseph

from

Goebbels

1929

NSDAP .

when

Prior

newspaper

credited

capture

Techniques

he

responsible

was

that

he

dedicated

with

the

to

was

the

had

to

of

the

promoting

potential

“advertise”

Nazi

Reich

published

stage-managing

attention

used

to

for

appointed

Der

Nazi

of

Angriff

ideas.

Nazi

party

and

the

the

of

Attack),

Goebbels

in

campaign

Leader

(The

propaganda

supporters

the

propaganda

Propaganda

has

that

period

leader

a

the

weekly

been

helped

before

ranged

1933.

from

189

4

A U H TO R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

radio

and

broadcasts,

the

use

Germany”

1932

was

to

–

of

lm

campaign

during

of

which

characterized

address

shows,

torchlight

loudspeakers,

1932.

Hitler

by

banners

In

ran

Hitler’s

the

the

of

ying

meetings,

“Hitler

election

Hindenburg

use

mass

innovative

presidential

against

literal

processions,

and

–

Nazi

visits

over

campaign

of

“dynamism”

across

the

nation

audiences.

By

the

late

machine

1920s

was

who

provided

UFA

as

whose

well

e a r ly

a i de d

acc e s s

as

to

19 30s

by

the

co ul d

Nazi

be

to

use d

the

the

pr es s

intr o d uctions

funding

coordinated

a nd

grea tl y

pr opa g an d a

l ink

a nd

to

l e adi n g

to

p ay

H ug e n be r g ,

 lm

t h e a t re s

of

bus i ne s sm e n

for

im pr es s ive ly

ca mp a ig ns.

Charisma and powers of oratory

Connected

charisma.

for

to

audiences.

appeal

and

of

his

with

complex

Otto

little

of

set,

enabling

gift

could

a

a

the

difcult

to

can

infallibly

a

to

exile

of

act

a

the

as

to

Hitler’s

attraction

evaluate.

about

in

1940,

the

(often

Was

the

repetitive

solutions

to

with

a

which

Hitler’s

it

ills

to

no

conscious

have

the

been

uncanny

which

his

the

sufferings

asked

extraordinary

his

from

I

with

receiving

proclaiming

instincts,

nation…

attribute

heart

wireless

loudspeaker

of

the

remarked:

human

perhaps

a

whole

diagnoses

of

hypnotic

content

admissible

secret

only

of

or

certainty

least

that

performance?

vibrations

the

is

their

is

his

aspect

information

the

from

with

revolts

I

emphasize

due

or

him,

what

speaker.

propaganda

seismograph,

desires,

times

which

to

a

him,

personal

many

is

writing

endow

secret

of

detailed

responds

delicacy

and

This

problems)

the

most

issue

accounts

speeches

Strasser,

Hitler

as

the

Many

power

intuition,

audience

is

suffering… ▲

The caption on this 1932 campaign pamphlet

reads, “Hitler over Germany”

Albert

Speer,

Minister

of

Goebbels

and

audiences;

these

who

audiences.

the

To

theme.

by

lashing

erce,

out

his

me.”

a

how

deeper

they

And

their

to

sense

the

in

1931

for

of

penetrate

they

masses

were

not

and

later

true

the

a

to

their

rose

the

few

the

beat

to

become

set

was

Hitler

and

Goebbels

opponents

and

vilifying

hours

for

by

The

by

Jews

a

they

and

at

a

time

in

unhappiness

that

victims.

gave

and

determined

frenzy

the

their

from

Hitler’s

mob

personal

them

of

existence

hours

the

replaced

threw

the

instincts

unemployment,

wallowed

short

economy

to

whole

conductors.

insecurity,

assemblage

for

through

derived

roared

the

misery,

licence…

breakdown

at

NSDAP

anonymous

victims.

By

direction

to

passions.

joining

programme.

becoming

yet

savagery,

primal

Speer,

party

knew

the

compensate

this

the

demanded

the

commented:

Certainly

baton;

caused

190

in

Goebbels’s

obsessions,

to

Hitler

but

hopelessness,

For

joined

Armaments,

As

follower

the

he

of

party

was

declared:

Hitler,

not

“I

whose

due

was

to

not

the

offerings

choosing

magnetic

force

the

had

of

any

NSDAP

reached

but

out

C H A P T E R

4 . 2 :

H I T l E R ’ S

C O N S O l I D A T I O N

O F

P O W E R ,

19 3 4 – 19 3 5

The programme oering of National Socialism

This

was

racism,

the

mix

expansionism,

the

and

frustrated,

would

raft”

of

features

revisionism,

never

for

to

a

as

the

fearful.

over

seeking

which

The

signicant

safety

palingenesis,

Volksgemeinschaft,

anti-Semitism,

and

win

those

such

appeals

was

elements

from

targeted

“catch-all”

nature

of

the

at

of

Left

unemployment

paingenesis

ultra-nationalism,

anti-Marxism,

the

the

but

and

National rebir th, a core idea of National

German

Socialism.

disillusioned,

programme

it

acted

political

as

a

“life

uncertainty.

Pragmatism

Hitler’s

adapt

views

to

programme,

here

the

was

25

and

were

enabled

the

“long

his

Today

abandoning

of

the

and

as

the

was

greeted

stand

at

the

chaos,

but

if

taken

into

a

to

be

working

out

a

associations,

of

and

rank

Germany

Later,

in

fall

February

of

into

1933,

point

of

nal

iron

hard

class,

to

of

will

and

or

he

was

is

as

iron

willingness

the

the

to

original

NSDAP .

Nazi

Notable

permeating

with

industrialists

illustrated

in

by

his

January

businessmen

1932,

with

stated:

Germany’s

one

of

stance

sought

day

of

destiny.

necessity

broken

discipline.

of

lacking

off,

…

from

conceptions

else,

of

assembled

when

his

Dusseldorf

development

school

unions,

madness

will

this

but

parts

cause

This

in

the

Germany

body-politic

parties,

by

turning

have

Hitler

Club

applause”

continues,

drop

the

Hugenberg.

Industry

Bolshevist

in

this

this

then

Either

the

If

the

land

our

we

present

in

people

shall

conglomerate

world,

from

internal

will

succeed

of

this

pride

consolidation,

ruin…

another

meeting

of

industrialists,

declared:

Private

enterprise

conceivable

Similarly,

DNVP

with

the

to

such

respects

or

anti-capitalist

cooperation

tumultuous

development

he

the

before

we

many

down

advance

speech

and

in

play

to

businessmen

appearance

to

him

points

where

dogmatic

circumstances,

the

them,

save

in

if

the

(to

maintained

people

earlier

have

hostility

through

“protect

polity

our

from

collaboration

March

be

Zentrum/BVP ,

whether

our

through

Act

despite

and

DNVP

only

cannot

a

the

was

from

the

of

democracy;

authority

parties

by

the

Front

the

of

Catholic

of

other

able

Harzburg

maelstrom

age

idea

towards

country

with

the

sound

Hitler

the

in

of

chaos

to

and

is

personality…

such

early

as

the

1930s

October

of

economic

parties

it

to

1931

Bolshevism

bankruptcy”)

secure

the

work

with

and

or

Enabling

1933.

Oppor tunism

The

NSDAP

AJP

the

as

a

Taylor

sails

of

result

about

claimed

played

of

the

into

and

of

an

the

“only

Reichstag

The

in

a

re,

hands

party

alleged

the

at

Great

but

organization

bread”

Hitler’s

opportunities

Socialism”,

Hitler’s

election.

threat

that

National

“Work

Similarly,

1933

recognized

the

of

time

a

critical

able

revolution,

to

and

were

party

in

caused

time

–

benet

to

by

just

circumstances.

put

the

already

played

the

wind

there

years.

well

Nazis

before

from

eliminate

by

previous

desperation

whether

was

Depression

sails

the

of

presented

or

the

KPD

1929

Slogans

many.

not,

March

conjuring

the

to

into

in

as

up

the

an

▲

effective

opposition,

inside

or

outside

the

Der Wahre Jacob, 14 February 1931

Reichstag.

191

4

A U H TO R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

l Ta

Bribery Research and thinking skills

Where

force

proved

ineffective,

the

NSDAP

was

able

to

“buy”

support

in

Look at the illustration on the previous the

period

up

to

August

1934.

Acts

of

bribery

led

to:

page.

●

1

the

NSDAP/DNVP

alliance

of

March

1933,

to

give

an

absolute

With which political par ty was

Reichstag

majority

the publication Der Wahre Jacob

associated?

●

the

collusion

voted

2

in

of

the

favour

of

Zentrum/BVP

the

Enabling

in

burying

Weimar

when

they

Act

What point is being made in the

car toon above in relation to Nazi

●

electioneering to dierent audiences?

the

SA

“deal”

had

with

once

“brown

the

sung

ood”

army

of

(the

following

“the

SA)

grey

and

the

rock”

the

elimination

(the

death

of

army)

of

Röhm,

being

whose

drowned

in

a

Hindenburg.

Other factors

Hitler’s

rise

to

possible

by

●

lack

The

power

acts

of

Weimar’s

the

●

The

of

a

●

abuse

of

of

parties

inability

the

August

other

democratic

1934)

groups

was

or

experiment

sufciently

as

–

of

such

accepted

as

accountable

to

in

work

which

the

Weimar

and

the

it

also

made

parties:

in

Germany;

throughout

Article

48

democratic

system

had

been

unable

on

the

army

solid

to

that

government

to

of

proportional

designed

work

for

–

the

too

success

of

on

too

in

actions

the

from

early

Stresemann

was

1919

1920s

not

and

and

the

1930s;

enough

to

foundation

support

the

democracy,

Left

to

during

unite

historian

idiocy”

until

and

a

system

it

regarded

hostility

attempt

Marxist

“suicidal

front

a

crises

under

outright

real

policies

economic

respite

(division)

what

the

of

unwilling

with

of

and

any

anti-Nazi

provisions

parties

spirit

with

system

schism

Right

to

to

by

rule

deal

distaste

hindered

the

proved

period

failure

with

The

to

brief

anchor

●

in

Disillusionment

The

the

never

functioning

political

parliamentary

●

for

was

up

omission

1930

failure

many

the

base

or

constitutional

the

representation

●

consolidation

period

March

The

solid

legitimacy

undermined

by

(and

commission

of

the

against

Eric

Moscow’s

life

of

Weimar,

extremist

Hobsbawm

failure

to

parties

in

2002

promote

which

of

the

referred

an

late

Der Wahre Jacob, 1 4 January 1933. The caption

▲

●

Fear

of

the

Left

by

important

sections

of

society

(big

business,

the

reads: “Stages in the life of Adolf Hitler”

Catholic

Church,

l Ta

Socialism,

or

to

and

an

so

on),

which

unwillingness

to

led

to

support

confront

it

for

National

before

1933/1934

Thinking skills

●

1

Political

intrigue

(jobbery)

on

the

part

of

gures

such

as

Hindenburg

Explain what each of the four and

von

Papen

and

the

fatal

underestimation

of

Hitler

who

it

was

illustrations refers to in terms of the believed

could

be

controlled.

(political) life of Adolf Hitler.

External

2

factors

also

had

a

role

in

weakening

the

chances

of

democracy

What might an illustration drawn in ourishing,

from

humiliating

and

the

imposition

of

what

most

Germans

perceived

as

a

February 1933 have shown?

3

punitive

peace

treaty

to

the

Franco-Belgian

invasion

of

the

What might an illustration drawn in Ruhr

in

1923

(following

Germany’s

defaulting

on

August 1934 have shown? and

192

the

US

stock

market

crash

in

October

1929.

reparations

payments)

C H A P T E R

Winston

story

of

of

war

Churchill

in

British

later

complicated

Europe,

Robert

government

How

different

Republican

greater

referred

idiocy”.

in

authority

have

(Chief

credit.

We

issue

before

as

the

Diplomatic

a

O F

P O W E R ,

19 3 4 – 19 3 5

“sad

outbreak

Adviser

to

the

wistfully:

been

with

C O N S O l I D A T I O N

reparations

months

reected

Germany

and

H I T l E R ’ S

the

ve

Vansittart

would

in

to

And

1939)

things

regime

4 . 2 :

if

we

had

greater

might

all

provided

concessions

have

all

lived

and

the

with

happily

ever

afterwards.

Th opposto dug th Thd rch,

1934–1945

The

Nazi

over

all

leader

The

state’s

aspects

were

and

the

of

Bolshevism,

“common

“stick

goal.

As

lm),

policies

to

single-party

states,

whether

fascism

of

or

of

and

public

carrot

as

brute

omnipresent

methods”

Arendt

they

of

to

enforce

the

goals

were

leader

of

“Russian

Socialism”

shared

surveillance

(secret

and

were

massive

education,

the

police),

inuencing

or

and

suffering

Nazis

achieve

economic

accepting

the

to

(through

of

the

into

and

the

new

the

radio,

▲

tin is labelled “brown”.

were

regime.

and

used

Bribery

were

Der Wahre Jacob, 7 January 1933. The caption reads:

“Darn it, the paint is peeling o everywhere.” The paint

social

masses

power

Nazi

print,

also

to l Ta

into

bring

used

propaganda

alleviate

helped

will

its

opinion”.

population

had

camps),

force,

over

to

National

the

power

and

omnipotent.

used

totalitarian

of

party

Hannah

instrument

the

(concentration

the

as

and

noted,

control

patronage

the

The

opposition

designed

“seduce”

monopoly

omniscient

government,

–

a

population.

Bracher

Italian

well

exercise

the

infallible,

eliminate

As

monopolizing

Both

to

of

terror”

techniques

persecution

and

as

“total

and

party.

20th-century

was

lives

totalitarian

was

conformity

the

exalted

essence

remarked,

objective

of

and

used

Research and thinking skills

to

What point is the car toonist making maintain

that

power.

regarding Nazi political progress in early

January 1933, and why?

The nature of the opposition

Most

less

Germans

than

1

remained

per

cent

accommodated

popular,

for

an

Hans

on

Rothfels,

conicts

who

has

system”.

not

the

up

to

commented:

the

Nazi

active

Fear

of

one

the

period

of

and

and

that

and

foreign

punishment

has

the

possibility

the

McDonough

opposition,

among

experienced

critical

regime.

domestic

“no

and

fully

was

the

neutrality”

conscience

himself

in

to

1942.

“tepid

to

the

view

too

of

was

many

to

of

that

Germans

that

partly

proved

responsible

resisters.

pass

facile

unqualied

trials

that

most

policies

potential

right

estimated

life

under

German

judgment

resistance

a

totalitarian

“submissiveness”

Germans

“pursued

the

policy

ostrich”.

Opposition

Nazi

of

Rothfels

permeated

of

of

engaged

themselves

certainly

attitude

loyal

ranged

salute,

opposition

telling

such

propaganda

and

as

from

“silent

jokes

about

sabotage

plots

to

in

opposition”

Hitler

the

and

(refusing

the

regime)

workplace,

assassinate

Hitler

to

the

(the

offer

to

more

circulation

most

the

well

active

of

anti-Nazi

known

being

193

4

A U H TO R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

the

20

varied

desire

War,

July

–

to

Rudolph

pig

is

humour

book

in

the

by

end

of

effort

a

no

possible

Allies

in

published

collection

laughing

war,

only

a

as

“through

of

the

the

Heil

of

joke

of

Nazi

phase

of

the

regime

policy,

the

to

a

Second

World

Hitler,

Das

told

as

Schwein

during

noted

in

the

the

is

tot

Nazi

review

(Heil

regime.

of

Herzog’s

Spiegel:

could

Marianne

spiteful

last

resist

certain.

jokes

matter,

Der

opponents

ethically

appeared

magazine

the

and

get

you

Elise

killed.

K.,

remarks”

was

and

A

Berlin

convicted

executed

in

munitions

of

undermining

1944

for

telling

one:

“Hitler

wants

and

to

jump?’

A

was

was

2006

identied

war

this

in

Motives

morally

the

dead),

German

the

worker,

by

plot).

to

what

defeat

Such

the

bomb

desire

Herzog

the

…

a

salvage

when

Hitler,

1944

from

Göring

do

suggests

fellow

are

something

standing

to

cheer

on

up

top

the

of

Berlin’s

people

of

radio

Berlin.

tower.

‘Why

Hitler

don’t

says

you

he

just

Göring.”

worker

overheard

her

telling

the

joke

and

reported

her

to

the

authorities.

The treatment of the opposition

Whether

active

apparatus

of

or

“silent”,

terror

that

opposition

was

effective

to

in

National

Socialism

repressing

dissent.

faced

In

an

April

1933

The Gestapo Göring

established

The ocial secret police of Germany and

when

Nazi-occupied Europe. In 1933 Heinrich

its

Himmler, leader of the SS (Schutzstael) –

“The

originally formed as Hitler ’s personal

in

bodyguard in 1925 but greatly expanded

double

by 1933 – was appointed leader of the

waiting

Gestapo. Hence the Gestapo fell under the

also

control of the SS, much to the annoyance

continued

of Göring. By 1936 Himmler ’s appointment

referring

as Chief of Police as well as SS leader led

out

of

to a bewildering overlapping of police

the

Weimar

he

new

headquarters

Gestapo

fact

the

transformed

“a

…

fear

for

of

a

in

to

of

in

Berlin.

the

the

dictator

in

the

in

of

successor

Weimar

and

come

of

late

Gestapo

the

of

the

to

1938,

men

pointed

This

“it

was

of

1933

irony

an

all

was

in

the

instrument

of

continuity

Weimar

police

for

but

joined

with

that

which

when,

that

had

Staatspolitzei)

service,

conceived

element

found

Coblenz

…

former

after

the

police”

1919

anarchy

number

in

of

police

out

political

power”.

Gestapo

( Geheime

political

constitution

Freikorps

the

Gestapo

Prussian

Reitlinger

remarkable

service

gures

hundred

to

the

state

existing

Bolshevism

witnessed

a

was

product

police

the

the

was

who

example,

ten

or

police

fteen

under

Republic”.

services and intelligence-gathering This

outwardly

formidable

structure

of

repression

was

the

instrument

oces under Himmler and his second-inused

to

maintain

order

within

Germany,

although

much

recent

command Reinhard Heydrich. In 1939 the scholarship

has

stressed

the

level

of

collaboration

with

the

secret

various police functions and forces were police

among

ordinary

citizens,

who

informed

upon

“enemies

of

the

combined under the control of the RHSA state”.

With

30

000

ofcers

at

its

peak,

the

Gestapo

relied

on

the

aid

(Reichssicherheitshauptamt, or Reich of

a

“culture

of

denunciation”

among

many

who

sought

to

benet

Central Security Oce), which wielded from

the

turning

in

of

supposed

enemies

of

the

regime.

The

image

of

authority over the Gestapo, the SS, the SD a

monolithic

and

all-seeing

secret

police

was

fostered

by

the

system

(the intelligence service of the SS), and the itself,

as

part

of

its

tactics

of

inducing

an

atmosphere

of

fear

of

repression

to

dissuade

Kriminalpolizei (Kripo). From its formation resistance.

This

combination

of

fear

of

the

apparatus

until his assassination in Czechoslovakia and

the

cooperation

of

informants

was

in 1942, Heydrich headed it. throughout

194

the

period

of

Nazi

rule.

capable

of

stiing

opposition

C H A P T E R

4 . 2 :

H I T l E R ’ S

C O N S O l I D A T I O N

O F

P O W E R ,

19 3 4 – 19 3 5

The main forms of resistance

Failure

of

of

Hitler.

enabled

KPD

the

and

parties

(both

opposition

The

failure

Nazis

SPD

after

and

While

Nazi

they,

A

despairing

SPD

in

concerning

political

The

of

From

the

the

major

but

Left,

from

of

towards

to

failed

legacy

the

each

SOPADE,

to

distrust

to

whether

committee

general

from

the

both

oppose

and

the

challenge

undermining

the

of

to

military

to

1935

between

power

the

power

until

repression

attempted

executive

state,

rise

strategy

the

so:

of

summarizes

Nazi

had

institution

the

of

brutal

do

incapable

the

change

institutions

proved

the

The

face

also

perhaps

to

particular

power.

in

within

1937

resistance

number

this

them

other

1933)

groups

like

even

contributed

in

the

of

the

regime.

the

situation

religious

or

Leftist

principles:

regime

to

T wo

after

from

Left

KPD

consolidate

report

exile,

the

the

remained,

Churches.

state,

to

1933.

before

from

of

is

those

their

Third

North

who

small,

criticism.

that

the

of

very

…They

general

The

great

Reich

they

anything

mood

mass

more

apart

do

complaints

Germany,

The

consciously

quite

of

is

not

an

want

about

would

agent

about

is

the

fact

that

be

to

a

they

the

aspect

very

reported

by

political

that

return

or

probably

SPD

people

the

to

this

characterized

the

criticize

from

past

and

threaten

astonished

in

dulled

give

if

the

anyone

the

and

of

expression

told

foundations

horried.

1938:

widespread

completely

objectives

cannot

political

and

does

indifference.

not

want

to

hear

politics…

Opposition from the Left

Both

the

KPD

Marxism.

physical

as

As

early

violence

auxiliary

banning

of

1933

In

March

up

in

to

intern

Dachau

(1937)

later

did

and

they

under

of

the

Göring

and

the

what

SS.

the

street

in

of

Left

Prussia.

The

and

ahead

political

in

who

Originally

extermination

camp

Many

were

re

target

led

SPD

of

to

the

deputies

Munich

of

the

and

meant

camps

the

in

opponents.

(1936)

which

on

incorporated

of

near

introduced

satellite

they

itself

were

anti-Nazi

prisoners.

custody”,

attack

Reichstag

Sachsenhausen

bred

Nazi

intimidation

for

regulations

camps

the

found

ghters

concentration

“protective

main

the

1933,

lay

Dachau

camps

victims

threats

emergency

become

early

SA

re-educate

later

these

supervision

by

1933,

were

January

indicated

under

years

as

KPD

and

were

necessary

SPD

from

police

the

March

late

and

by

that

detention

set

inmates

Buchenwald

no

trial

the

fell

was

was

regime.

under

centres;

In

the

only

later

centres.

Opposition from the KPD

By

6

late

1932

million

membership

was

the

votes

of

cadres

party’s

in

the

360

astonishing.

party

KPD

in

had

000.

The

gained

November

The

arrest

March,

organizational

signicant

1932

rapidity

of

the

followed

structure

with

KPD

by

on

the

Ernst

waves

national

support,

election,

which

leader

further

a

electoral

Reichstag

KPD

with

a

was

Thälmann

of

level

and

arrests,

almost

party

broken

and

leading

rendered

the

ineffective.

195

4

A U H TO R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

Some

leaders

Wilhelm

while

(one

others

of

the

banners,

Rote

the

the

Fahne

belief

capitalism

This

Walter

issuing

and

consideration

to

evaded

removed

remained

whom,

Leaets,

Die

who

Florin)

of

were

that

the

the

meant

keep

to

morale

The

and

open

Nazi

August

of

the

when

front”

of

all

a

of

relatively

structure

did

in

exist

forces

was

was

foreign

into

the

in

tatters

last

resistance

GDR).

raising

Party

–

kick

of

the

yet

The

of

The

of

red

newspaper

no

serious

KPD

still

held

desperate

increased

distribution

high

but

arrests

the

did

of

in

printing

Germany

little

party

by

nature

through

and

late.

and

internal

hands.

initiative

its

the

to

of

was

threaten

members

what

this

the

to

at

opposition

strength

radical

the

the

sapped

of

the

in

any

of

fascism”

a

“popular

fascism.

a

the

(the

KPD’s

It

was

centralized

“popular

interminable

of

of

rethinking

“social

policy

rise

point

cooperation

émigrés

to

Comintern

hostility

from

By

and

led

advocated

suffered

too

–

of

of

dropped

had

undertaken

capitals:

loss

Party

little,

the

and

opposition,

minimal.

Moscow,

that

Nazi

members

was

Democratic

the

of

ofcial

undertaken

was

Continued

International)

Social

case

party

and

the

Dahlem,

up

form

leader

insurrection.

clandestine

misinterpretation

state

some

newspapers,

of

Franz

build

collapse.

its

state.

to

became

armed

regime

Pieck,

Paris

organize

later

activities

an

played

protest

1935,

Communist

to

and

of

Hitler

ideological

emerging

by

spirits

developing

to

to

circulation

main

soon

stance

propaganda

the

Berlin

Hitler

anti-Nazi

(Wilhelm

underground

given

would

ideological

in

Ulbricht,

continued

was

and

capture

themselves

front”

meetings

substance

did

not

materialize.

The

outbreak

fascism

lack

of

on

of

civil

foreign

success

in

signed

a

with

dilemma:

a

in

a

Union

comrades”,

directives

little

in

Moscow

with

National

to

on

the

August

KPD

a

orders,

members

KPD

scale

and

interests

the

and

had

suddenly

USSR.

halt

and

it

did

the

often

of

given

appeared

security

to

than

war

its

be

to

faced

and

on

the

Moscow’s

the

USSR

were

exiles

effort,

unsuccessful.

idea,

the

Berlin

“German

communist

Nazi

ght

become

attack

the

But

defence

KPD

and

Confusion

Hitler’s

to

from

themselves

resistance.

the

front”

fact

Moscow

found

after

While

to

Soviet

opportunity

communists

Barbarossa)

renew

“popular

the

Only

towards

sabotage

the

when

enemy

with

Germany.

small

the

1939,

Socialist

work

and

German

(Operation

inside

of

1936

Germany.

industrial

were

Moscow’s

in

Stalin’s

sceptical

in

many

agreement

1941

need

urged

attempts

experience

from

June

the

In

pact,

followed

in

Spain

National

consequence

remained

defend

the

under

on

of

such

Germany.

friendship

disillusionment

in

distracted

non-aggression

involved

Soviet

war

soil

The

SPD

previous

a

policy

liberate

more

to

Germany

Socialism.

Opposition from communist groups

Groups

Uhrig

of

impact.

and

production

Baum

196

in

Berlin

Support

unpopular

war

communists

Group

Group

of

the

–

or

communist

were

USSR

unattractive

were

whose

small,

small

during

actions

the

prospect.

scale

and,

were

sympathizers

both

in

number

Second

World

The

group’s

like

the

focused

on

–

such

and

in

War

attempts

Home

Front

producing

as

the

terms

was

to

of

an

disrupt

and

the

anti-Nazi

C H A P T E R

leaets,

their

Gestapo

to

Similarly,

of

which

to

pass

USSR,

life

the

Round-ups

organizing

of

the

any

which

the

of

the

Red

C O N S O l I D A T I O N

limited

threat

Orchestra

government

and

and

to

that.

Nazi

extreme

of

by

to

the

the

( Rote

war

effort

O F

ability

regime

Kapelle ),

ministries

communists

extent

to

which

opposition.

were

was

simply

Weimar

rule

the

effective

the

was

were

their

economic

Gestapo

resistance

KPD,

the

in

Nazi

illustrated

domestic

GDR,

of

H I T l E R ’ S

and

of

in

P O W E R ,

19 3 4 – 19 3 5

the

1942.

members

who

sought

capabilities

to

the

short-lived.

by

disruption,

eliminate

employed

details

were

effectiveness

and

attempts

were

on

and

identify

4 . 2 :

swept

form

The

up.

the

failed

a

1944

The

basis

party,

eras,

By

of

the

“heroic

an

incapable

of

of

KPD

resistance”

historical

Moscow’s

provide

industrial

was

remnants

of

future

of

in

party

myth

tool

to

involved

the

writing

policies

alternative

in

by

the

throughout

to

the

rise

or

Right.

Opposition from the SPD

With

a

party

membership

performance

well

placed

system.

during

to

its

its

then

the

and

Germany

and

more

than

to

by

Gestapo

1930s

left

less

from

and

time

for

commitment

in

bars,

and,

to

while

radar

to

of

secrecy

and

the

SPD

small

Gestapo,

meetings

their

regime,

As

very

ensure

(for

were

for

of

in

had

to

of

not

to

news-

inside

Shock

involved

proved

efforts

were

little

noted,

and

were

conducive

material

their

meetings

not

a

major

opposition

below

activities

to

hours

beneted

mass

remained

low-level

“full

sapped

Isolated

the

maintain

working

SPD

mobilize

by

to

Arguably,

the

groups

their

was

Red

previously

sympathizers

of

rst

emerged

Germany

Mehringer

programme.

opposition

nature

safety

which

production

unable

the

itself

numbers

employment”.

SPD

vote

by

arrested.

supporters

was

to

distributing

groups

Democratic

that

meeting

ones

example,

the

was

totalitarian

banned

KPD:

conditions

meetings

SOPADE

the

sound

SPD

London.

specic

Hartmut

demands

socialist

to

a

the

removed

to

activities,

Social

former

only

ofcially

Beginning),

and

underground

the

to

While

and

1933,

Reichstag

the

leadership

actions

temporary

of

was

economic

restaurants

Reich.

some

the

of

serious

the

and

lives

the

were

1940–1945,

undermined

increasing

million

encroaching

propaganda

workers.

a

March

attend

the

New

Hitler

the

party

and

groups

and

Bill

leaets.

efcienct,

the

to

similar

and

the

also

to

from

(clandestine)

in

homes,

challenge

later,

these

unemployment

improvement

the

anti-Nazi

industrial

employment

able

June,

Stosstrupp

to

1932

Enabling

anti-Nazi

out

1938

with

the

and

irritants

later

contact

deputies

By

of

resistance

undertook

carry

Rote

small

Alongside

SPD

approximately

conscated

Paris

posting

to

Troop/Der

mid

funds

of

elections

on

passage.

Prague,

exile,

SPD

debate

regime,

sheets

the

organize

Those

the

against

In

in

the

and

promoting

resistance.

Opposition by the military

During

the

Republic

period

with

Weimar

1930–1933

an

support

era

the

wholeheartedly.

oath

was

of

but

in

personal

“bought”

by

It

army

had

stood

August

loyalty

visions

not

largely

1934

to

of

the

Hitler

Nazi

itself

sidelines

submitted

Adolf

a

committed

on

to

as

foreign

the

to

in

the

the

Hitler

Führer.

policy

While

that

critical

state

its

rejected

the

197

4

A U H TO R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

military

it

restrictions

became

the

increased,

ofcers

inuence

By

the

so

who

of

in

later

1934.

and

the

who

of

could

army

interference

dealt

with

forced

wife

to

had

in

save

the

of

charges

With

and

that

he

the

destroy e d

forces.

Hitler.

by

but

against

Sudetenland

contact

Chamberlain’s

any

coup

against

Friederich

the

By

1941

military

ending

the

and

the

at

support

of

grew,

the

le a de r ship

of  c e r

r e gi me

w ou ld

to

Th e

–

it s

the

Na z i s

wea ke n e d

gr ou ps

wi t h in

po li t ic ia n s

pe rs e c u t io n

fe a r

d es tr oy

ri d

wi t h

c la s s

German

t h at

H it l e r’s

Ge rm a n y

G er m a n y

the

of

the

the

state.

were

a

group

disappointed

leading

to

of

Neville

and

but

oppose

conservative

to

of

continued

remained

of

of

in

challenge

1938

war

plotted

over

who

but

support

discovered

state

politician

N a z is .

as

conspirators

Nazi

H it l er ’s

command

actively

lack

a

h on our

dis a st e r.

th e

Chamberlain,

not

the

down

who

possibility

appeasement

work

to

Beck,

his

Supreme

corps

corps

reluctant

by

supreme

ofcer

ofcer

and

Wh i le

le a d

new

his

victim

c h a ll en g e d

stepping

army

Minister

t he

o rg a niz e d

assumed

the

h on ou r

woul d

and

we re

de m a n d

Fr i t sc h ,

ha d

fe l t

Defence

Ludwig

by

to

be c a m e

B ot h

the y

the

Fr it s c h

or

we re

as

rendered

a

plotter

alongside

disillusioned

with

nature.

But

–

group

had

nationalist

mobilizing

regime

of

of

pol icy

l eve ls

B lo m be rg ’s

H it le r

ch a rg e ,

s c an d al

Hitler

a nd

that

h om o se xu a l it y.

the

of

f or e ig n

hi gh e s t

m at t e r

Fritsch’s

assembled

Beck–Goerdeler

–

and

Worried

to

of

r e si gn e d.

and

Prime

a

for

Fr it s c h

to

Minister

active

conservative

Hitler

acts

General

Beck,

as

professional

oath

continued

a

agree

cor ps .

the

p oli c e

s uf  c i e nt

and

H it l e r’s

at

B lo mbe rg

Be r li n

which

army,

Beck

of

repressive

least

for

as

the

British

policy

a l so

forces

regime.

Goerdeler,

regime’s

1942,

ar my

e st a bli sh e d

mil it a r y

sub sta nce

nazication

all,

impractical.

Hitler,

of

issue,

with

to

intr ig ue

included

the

the

wa s

1937,

armed

personal

Exceptions

coup

in

by

The

not

their

no

departure

Chief

made

the

Ma rs h a ls

by

ofce r

p ub l i city,

in

the

t he

q ue s t io n

the

commi tted

Lebensraum

Commander

many,

of

F ie ld

the

ha d

the

a

of

gr ou ps

da r ed

B l o mbe r g

of

fo und

Blomberg’s

armed

who

p r o s ti tutio n

fo r

trial

by

of

were

bound

198

to

of

and

tha t

s uch

a ffai r s

w he n

Commander

the

of

wa r

threat,

numbers

non-commissioned

c on s e rva t ive

of

Röhm

As

forces

a dven t u r ou s ,

wi t h

the

diminished.

a nti -S em it i sm .

R e v e l a ti ons

honour

subsequent

impugned

the

1938,

links

to

concept

leaders

in

resign.

resignation,

Both

resolve

and

armed

be e n

mor e

of

dilution”.

pr of e s si on a l

na ture

ma jo r

the

class

had

the

r a bi d

removal

by

regime.

Individual

his

the

As

e l eme nt s

that

al li a nce

i ts

the

commissioned

Nazis.

of

by

“death

ofcer

r e p r e ss iv e

a

of

be came

an

a nd

spar k

strengthened

Hitler

po l i cy

the

of

ho w ev er,

inue nce

Churches

policies

number

committed

entere d

and

process

re l a ti o ns hi p

foreign

rejected

the

a

professional

the

military

Versailles

of

the

1930 s ,

the

As

Nazi

did

were

the

questioned

of

victim

in

the

midst

support

or

at

least

begun

of

proved

a

to

supporters

lack

war

organize

with

–

a

difcult.

of

will

to

the

a

network

intention

successful

Military

actively

war

of

of

until

success

bred

undermine

C H A P T E R

the

nation

Germany

was

able

British

What

to

and

and

suspicion,

state

–

avoid

of

in

a

and

Both

been

had

Kreisau

six

plans

crisi s .

Circle,

a

tide

by

and

turned

1943,

the

establish

O F

P O W E R ,

19 3 4 – 19 3 5

against

group

contact

with

state,

motives

put

as

of

and

remained

an

Beck–Goerdeler

being

defeat

forward

by

system

reactionary

wi th

not

and

the

not

system,

reecting

the

led

so

group

in

much

for

the

as

Soviet

post-Hitler

with

back

for

with

anti-Nazi

by

a

keeping

looking

the

obstacle

group

invasion

to

conservative

in

B eck– G oe r de le r

by

Admiral

anti -Hitl e r

a s so ci a ti on

led

by

a tte m pts

the

July

a ls o

resista nce

to

to

o t h er s

J am e s

phys ic a l ly

wer e

ma de

bo mb

g ro u p

C a na r i s

ac t ivit i e s

with

He lmuth

1 9 4 2 – 1 944

(althoug h

though,

the

democratic

monarchical

beliefs

of

the

involved.

In

Valkyri e ,

conservative

the

front

Germany

viewed

Germany

inv o l v e d

throughout

prominent

C O N S O l I D A T I O N

When

eastern

in

possibility

Abwehr

assassination

Operation

period.

the

authoritarian

sense

the

Sudetenland

laid

their

the

collabora ti o n

of

Hitler

which

ofcers

members

the

an

Wilhelminian

loose

on

support

the

USA,

Additionally,

politicians

In

more

replace

to

critical

H I T l E R ’ S

ofcials.

the

smacked

principles

and

attract

a

losses

interpreting

attempt

Union.

such

major

US

would

Britain

an

during

with

4 . 2 :

uns ucce s s ful )

194 4,

in

wa s

Mo lt k e,

r e m o ve

of

1 938

wh a t

has

a c c ou n t s

le a di ng

Os t e r.

and

in

An

The intelligence service of the German

Foreign Oce.

e st i m a t e d

194 3

t he

as

we r e

bu t

r em a in e d

of

Abwehr

t he

kn o wn

p la n s

H it l er.

un s u c c e ss ful ly

plo t

we re

Ha ns

si nc e

in

von

a nd

mos t

mi li t a ry–

Hi tl e r.

Operation Valkyrie, 1944

The Beck–Goerdeler group produced Operation Valkyrie,

Similarly, another plotter, Erwin Planck declared:

the plan to kill Hitler, in July 1944, a month after the The attempt … must be made, if only for the moral

Normandy Landings in France and just after the beginning rehabilitation of Germany… even if thereby no direct

of Operation Bagration on the Eastern Front, which was to improvement of Germany’s international prospects is

produce, by August, a crushing defeat of German forces in achieved.

Belorussia and Eastern Poland as Soviet armies headed

The planned assassination was to be carried out by towards Germany. The timing of Valkyrie has led to claims

Claus von Stauenberg, although an impressive range that the motives of the conspirators were based not just

of military leaders was also involved and knowledgeable on moral qualms about National Socialism but on the

about what was to happen – including Field Marshal Erwin necessity to remove Hitler, negotiate a rapid peace with

Rommel, who approved of the coup but who preferred the British and French, and prevent an invasion of German

the prospect of arresting and putting Hitler in the dock on soil by the advancing Red Army. Less cynically perhaps,

charges of war crimes. General Henning von Tresckow, who played a central role

Hitler survived the explosion and the retribution carried

in the planning of the coup, stated:

out against the plotters was swift and terrible. Some The

attempt

on

Hitler ’s

life

mu st

take

place

at

a ny

mu st

conspirators chose suicide, many were sentenced to cost .

If

it

does

not

su cce e d ,

the

cou p

d’ état

attempte d .

For

what

matt e r s

death and the military–conservative opposition was wiped never theless

be

no

practica l

is

out after Gestapo round-ups. Executions of opposition longer

the

obje ct ,

bu t

that

be for e

elements continued up to early 1945. Under Sippenhaft the

world

and

history

the

G e rma n

Re sista nce

laws, the principle of collective guilt was applied and led to movement

should

ha ve

s ta ke d

its

life

on

risking

the punishment of family members of the accused, even the

decisive

throw.

Com pa re d

w ith

this

nothin g

though there was no proof of their complicity in the plot. else

matters.

199

4

A U H TO R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

Opposition from the Catholic Church The German resistance and the If,

as

Ernst

Nolte

argued,

“The

origin

of

the

Right

(in

Europe

in

the

Allied powers interwar

years)

lies

always

in

the

challenge

of

the

Left”,

the

actions

of

The German resistance, unlike resistance the

Catholic

Church

in

abetting

the

rise

of

the

Nazis

can

be

understood

movements to National Socialism in

the

light

of

its

anxiety

about

Bolshevism.

The

papacy

had

already,

in

in par ts of occupied Europe during 1929,

signed

a

series

of

agreements

with

the

Italian

leader

Mussolini

(the

the Second World War, received little Lateran

Treaties),

which

helped

provide

legitimacy

for

Mussolini’s

external help from the Allied powers. single-party

state.

The

growth

of

the

KPD

in

Germany

by

1932

frightened

Despite the protestations of German not

only

the

existing

political

elite

but

also

the

Catholic

Church

and

its

opponents of the Nazi regime that they political

representatives

(Zentrum

and

BVP).

were committed to the over throw of

The

Zentrum

and

BVP ,

frequently

part

of

democratic

coalition

an evil Nazi state, suspicions of their

governments

during

the

period,

abandoned

any

commitment

to

the

motives remained. References to “moral

restoration

of

accountable

when

helped

democratic

government

after

March

1933

rehabilitation” and the need to address

they

to

pass

the

Enabling

Act.

By

July

1933

voluntary

the judgment of the cour t of world history

dissolution

of

the

party

occurred

following

Hitler’s

signing

of

a

Concordat

were not enough to earn the resisters

with

the

Catholic

Church,

in

which

he

promised

not

to

interfere

in

physical suppor t for their objectives.

Church

affairs

(including

the

right

of

the

Church

to

retain

and

establish

Even after the war ’s end, for the western

Catholic

schools

and

promote

Catholic

youth

groups)

in

exchange

for

a

Allies, a cloud of doubt hung over the real

guarantee

that

the

Church

would

abstain

from

interference

in

political

motives of those who acted in Operation

life.

Such

an

agreement

had

been

sought

with

the

Weimar

government

Valkyrie in July 1944.

previously,

but

Germany

who

Pius

a

XII),

Political

role

in

keen

German

the

myopia

time.

partner”,

If

and

the

van

not

the

of

state,

it

found

effectively

no

promises

Churches

state

as

at

could

youth

increasing

the

Jews,

Individual

the

200

one

the

was

the

be

of

–

the

no

of

Nazi

critique

to

when

limit

did

groups

of

stand

the

in

it

pastoral

as

were,

in

the

for

the

Pope

the

to

(and

also

the

that

August

the

the

will

1935,

sweeping

totalitarian

time

that

as

Vatican

had

giving

approval.

expedients:

Protestant)

totalitarian

rights

followed

education,

of

taming

all

meeting

of

the

actively

at

dialogue

Gleichschaltung

in

Catholic

persecution

shared

institution

Hitler,

religious

it

Its

Hitler

loyal

same

of

exist.

of

paganism”

have

a

groupings

meant

letter

force

of

Vatican

its

“a

but

apparatus

at

to

but

towards

“new

Catholic

erosion

the

–

be

religious

1933

Catholic

press,

challenge

the

minorities

such

Left.

policies

being

papacy

a

a

appeared

until

on

prominent

by

a

over

rule

regime

a

channelled

parties

to

“Coordination”

in

in

(later

played

part

religious

opponents

repressive

gradual

time

the

take

most

The

ceased

the

Church

was

had

disappointed.

described

Concordat

A

be

it

political

and

winning

of

to

on

Christian

confronting

regime

enacted

did

late.

political

about

political

the

major

its

in

of

was

difculties

outset

clerics

was

that

Bismarck,

Catholic

Pacelli

beliefs.

promises

and

(representative)

Cardinal

parties

assumed

bishops,

what

of

false

the

had

controlled

too

time

institutions.

Catholic

At

of

it

Nuncio

was

organized

gures

words,

organized.

was

part

Church

Nazi

brutality

sterilization

the

the

Papal

anti-Marxist

through

elimination

already

groups.

or

from

against

made

be

legislation

and

to

dismantled

Gleichschaltung

life

religious

major

to

of

political

the

When

was

respectability

The

of

Hitler’s

form

Norden’s

only

protested

of

The

settlement

the

on

other

were

Führer.

publicly

state

life

the

achieved

Catholic

subjugation

aspects

the

political

was

with

in

envisaged

of

in

short-sightedness

this

success.

admirer

Catholicism,

disappearance

and

without

negotiated

in

such

Bishop

March

as

Graf

1937

euthanasia

von

by

Galen

Pope

and

–

Pius

but

XI,

an

as

C H A P T E R

encyclical

“With

(a

Socialism

a

papal

Burning

towards

criticism

of

religion

in

pointed

out,

Catholic

Nazi

sent

was

minorities

on

priests

were

and

of

Pius’s

(many

failed

of

attack

Concordat

emphasis,

whom

were

some

provide

of

political

relation

but

in

as

organized

of

To

the

an

entitled

than

Winkle

credit

Dachau),

of

dissenting

institution

resistance

19 3 4 – 19 3 5

Catholic

and

the

P O W E R ,

National

enemies

to

Stackelberg

interned

O F

Church)

policies

matters”.

pulpits,

any

Catholic

the

in

as

doctrinal

C O N S O l I D A T I O N

the

on

persecution

and

from

H I T l E R ’ S

bishops

an

the

main

of

to

all

less

“spiritual

delivered

Church

to

was

breaches

Germany.

individual

messages

letter

Anxiety”,

4 . 2 :

to

the

the

state.

Opposition from the Protestant Churches

Catholicism

Rhineland

Evangelical

early

as

a

(Reich

book

the

Confessing

for

largest

Ludwig

of

and

the

Church

with

of

the

the

to

study

unt

for

form

Church

elected

Church

backing

transform

of

religion

the

study

used

to

leadership

Old

by

Evangelical

machinations

under

was

Germany

the

Christian

national

short-lived:

political

in

Evangelical

German

stripped

southern

Müller

attempted

therefore

was

in

example,

organizations,

specically

Church)

resisted

the

Christians”,

Christianity

Jewish

strong

in

and

the

when

of

the

in

a

the

known

service

a

of

as

one

the

Nazi

(described

This

and

by

regional

into

as

Reichskirche

resented

Müller

Martin

28

group

Testament

ministers

As

Bishop

Church

the

the

Protestant

Prussia.

Reich

Aryans).

elect

of

of

and

formed

Niemöller.

In

l Ta

–

a

was

1933

(council)

Church

“German

preaching

a

Church,

synod

Protestant

state

particularly

Protestantism,

September

national

the

was

but

Thinking skills

For the full text of the Barmen Declaration,

see Stackelberg and Winkle, The Nazi

Germany Sourcebook (Routledge, 2002),

the

1934

pages 168–9.

they

To what extent did it resist the policies of held

a

synod

of

the

Confessional

Church

in

Barmen,

and

the

resulting

the National Socialists? Barmen

Declaration

Resistance

to

interference

political

the

of

Nazi

1945)

organize

that

ght

for

camps

the

taken

up

but

torn

Church

of

and

and

Jewish

Those

civil

which

liberties.

the

of

Most

did

speak

arrested

in

their

political

World

revealed

to

largely

Church.

resistance

remained

and

out

the

were

1937

basis

–

of

offer

dilemma

government

silent

on

detained

did

not

single-party

Niemöller

an

to

the

interned

and

a

of

aggressive

congregations

War

the

Reich

condemnation

clergy

Interestingly,

Second

resistance

was

outright

and

the

the

population

who

was

pastors

perhaps

between

feelings

of

of

Church

than

Socialism.

the

challenge

during

doctrine”

Reich

(Niemöller

majority

extinguished

Germany

Christians,

the

but

“false

rather

National

expansionism.

themselves

state

not

of

affairs

persecution

concentration

until

the

Nazi-sponsored

Church

principles

increasing

nature

in

the

in

rejected

offered

which

facing

attempts

to

was

many

to

control

patriotism.

Opposition from Jehovah’s Witnesses

Although

30

of

000

the

very

members),

Nazi

continued

or

join

much

state.

to

Nazi

accordingly

Jehovah’s

challenge

the

ruthlessly

of

numerically

surprisingly

of

occupied

by

rather

the

the

and

the

insignicant

at

times,

“Bible

armed

(under

the

steadfast

to

power,

give

forces)

the

and

community

legal,

25 000–

opponents

they

Hitler

they

salute

were

noted:

circumstances)

religious

Students’

to

Garbe

the

highest

as

came

refusal

Detlev

(approximately

out

Nazis

the

As

group

stood

their

(including

persecuted.

circles:

with

after

state

conviction

large

religious

Witnesses

soon

organizations

courage

were

minority

Banned

…the

the

a

police,

recklessness

occupied

and

SS

organs

Question”.

201

4

A U H TO R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

Despite

the

such

impact

and

250

bravery,

of

their

executed

the

comparatively

dissent.

for

It

their

is

small

estimated

refusal

to

that

serve

in

numbers

10

000

the

involved

were

limited

imprisoned

military.

Youth/student opposition

Much

has

regime

glorify

they

(the

in

been

but,

the

had

brave

little

Essen

their

dress

limited,

the

based

summer

“White

resistance

of

their

against

beliefs

defeat

the

to

the

at

the

the

Germans,

thought

stage

was

Ian

to

to

began

had

the

it

H i t le r

to

a ppe a rs

var i at i on s

S tä u be r

ga n g s

Yo u t h,

non c o n for m is t

m or e

e xa m ple s

W hi l e

ult i m a t e

especially

Nazi

trials,

for

after

the

p ri ce

the

t h ei r

for

need

also

for

by

of

i mpa c t

their

of

the

peace.

Nazi

Munich-

for

The

the

ideology

war

religious

disastrous

Allies

of

used

the

impact

Arguably,

the

some

campaign

treason

but

passive

of

Christian

army’s

purposes,

harming

of

by

for

minimal.

the

calling

experience

horrors

executions

was

1943,

yers

German

supporters

nation

by

and

the

the

and

effort

spring

the

–

propaganda

war

staunch

betraying

partly

Union

emphasized

group

early

circulating

witnessed

Soviet

arrests,

the

for

or

not,

effort

of

many

at

the

a

critical

unacceptable.

Kershaw

The

we re

r e si sta n c e .

the

Hit l er

s t u di os

r e gi on a l

the

a dop t in g

mu s ic )

pa y

Motivated

who

whether

of

di d

it s

sa n c t io n ed

le a e ting ,

t he

 lm

i ndivi du a ls ,

a nd

Shu f e rs ,

po li tica l

to

and

fe w

Pi r at e s

of c ia l ly

through

group

state.

in

the

on

than

them

1942

yers,

of

group

the

“non-Arya n”

of

Stalingrad,

members

As

of

subsequent

r ela ti ve l y

Vie nne se

to

op pos it ion

a ut h o rs

co nfo r m.

members

–

to

Rose”

civilians

the s e

of

Ede lw ei ss

( o cca s io na l

sever a l

to

e ffo rts

the

disobed i e nce ”

unwillingness

In

of

T he

r e s i s ta nt

listenin g

“youthful

was

were

youth/ s tud e nt

be st

e ff o r ts

effect.

activitie s

and

of

the

Galliva nte r s ,

Danzig)

but

ma d e

despite

mere

presence

intimidate

resistance…

support

argued:

the

the

of

a

mass

large

ruthless

of

the

proportions

resistance,

but

repressive

population

of

the

actually

apparatus

into

not

population

widely

is

usually

actively

did

not

condemned

sufcient

supporting

even

the

passively

it.

Popgd d ts o

Joseph

and

Goebbels,

Propaganda

appointment,

It

is

not

In

a

202

to

until

“a

appointed

March

for

they

people

a

recruited

talented,

of

Radio;

Film;

Press;

his

to

be

with

of

In

fact

more

to

radio

mind

Theatre;

or

and

less

of

Popular

conference

reconciled

towards

ofcials,

and

Budget

press

Enlightenment

soon

after

his

to

our

us,

rather

we

he

stressed

regime,

want

to

to

be

work

us.

well-educated

ministry:

Minister

a

that:

attitude

capitulated

meeting

mobilization

departments

the

neutral

have

Reich

1933.

emphasized

adopt

subsequent

achieve

he

he

enough

persuaded

people

was

after

spirit

party

and

Popular

in

Germany”.

loyalists

to

the

To

staff

Administration;

Enlightenment.

need

that

the

to

end

new

Propaganda;

on

C H A P T E R

To

promote

the

Nazi

4 . 2 :

H I T l E R ’ S

Weltanschauung

C O N S O l I D A T I O N

among

the

O F

population,

P O W E R ,

the

19 3 4 – 19 3 5

state

Weltanschauung established

a

monopoly

over

all

media,

eliminated

all

materials

hostile

A par ticular philosophy or view of life of to

the

spirit

of

National

Socialism

(“alien

elements”),

and

promoted

a

an individual or group. cult

of

but,

as

and

His

to,

the

Führer

Goebbels

the

most

all

Nazi

his

should

dynamic,

instructive

up

but

to

not

to

like

that

I

spreading

date,

the

in

the

interesting,

for

to

that

of

Nazi

the

radio

before

and

varied

most

the

modern

masses.”

broadcasting

everything…”

message:

itself,

and

be

used

inuencing

charge

put

movement

Methods

radio

exists

placed

boring.

the

together.

consider

ofcials

being

approach

“modern,

“I

people

instrument

avoid

illustrates

were

the

admitted,

to

costs

be

bind

crucial

instruction

“At

to

use

that

propaganda

methods

appealing:

that

interesting,

schoolmasterish”.

Broadcasting and the press

Cheap

radios

produced,

to

the

–

population.

households

limited

in

range

bars

broadcast

were

of

Even

difcult

to

to

communist

the

parties

“racially

and

used

to

us e d

publishing

forced

house.

to

directives

remove

from

the

By

cent

oor,

1938

of

broadcast

German

Such

in

far

with

radios

public

away

a

and

areas,

transmitters

short-wave

as

mass-

was

manufactured

large-scale

countries

over

we re

and

sell

ove r

b ann ed

19 34

Je wi sh

to

the i r

ke e p

to

stations

as

the

Mi ni s tr y

on

USA,

Propaganda and the deication

Eh e r

na me s

the

the

but

the

Pr es s

th e

c h a n g ed ,

they

(as

a nd

we r e

we r e

s ac k e d

–

a l t h ou g h

h ad

to

to in feature lms, weekly newsreels

shown in cinemas, over the airwaves,

“Führer worship” was also present in the

the regime to mark signicant dates in

Nazi

did

“omniscience” were repeatedly alluded

annual “public rituals” introduced by

pu bli sh i n g

of c ia l

propaganda. His “infallibility” and

and in ocially approved literature. Such

i m p os ed

G oe bbe ls

l a yo u t

li ne

re g i me

Ul ls t e in

of

r el i gi ou s

Soci a li st

L aw

generally was a main plank of Nazi

m o re

p ro ces s

an d

j ou rn a li s t s

Ve r la g ,

and

the

The deication of Hitler in the media

whi c h

p ro v e d

pr es s .

in

Re ich

as

It

p ol iti c a l

l ibe ra l

su ch

d icta te d

pr e ss ,

the

e a rl y

the

mon op ol y,

a i rw a ve s .

in

owne rs h ip

the ir

st a t e

G e r m a n y’s

an d

the

a

the

o b s ta c le s

in

out

w as

the

“coor di na te ”

ne ws pa pe rs

to

per

broadcasts.

factory

ra d io

mo nop ol y

W hi l e

newspape r s

the

were

of Hitler

contr ol

to

of

foreign

to

70

–

Socialism

deliberately

states.

pe r iod ,

jo ur na l i s m.

owne r s

estimated

on

receiver”

National

East.

es ta b l i s h

a

of

established

languages

Far

thems e l v e s )

were

existing

12

“people’s

was

block

foreign

We i m a r

also

clean”

to

an

that

installed

newsp a p e r s

Jewish

house

in

implem e nt

was

1939

Goebbels

to

or

message

radio

also

the

the

Gleichschaltung

spheres

a

cafes.

and

easy

the

late

propaganda

during

it

By

were

and

Africa

made

that

reception

transmitting

South

Volksempfänger

possessed

loudspeakers

and

the

ensuring

a l low

da i ly

the development of the Hitler state:

30 January, to remember the

appointment of Hitler as chancellor;

fol lo w.

20 April to celebrate Hitler ’s bir thday; At

an

early

press

conference

delivered

in

March

1933,

Goebbels

made

it

1 May, a “National Day of Labour ”; clear

what

the

role

of

the

press

in

Nazi

Germany

would

be:

September rallies in Nuremburg; and

I

see

in

than

the

what

task

has

information

happening

to

the

the

of

been

here

but

people

the

most

Government

going

but

also

press

also

the

conference

on

as

to

now.

instructions.

Government’s

effectively.

just

up

held

the

We

want

You

You

view

to

Government

here

daily

will

are

of

to

it

have

wants

a

of

course

know

and

be

not

how

press

to

something

which

cooperate

died in the 1923 Beerhall Putsch. These

receiving

only

you

9 November, to commemorate those who

other

what

can

convey

cooperates

with

the

occasions reminded the people and the

is

that

with

press.

par ty faithful of Nazi tribulations and how

they had been overcome under Hitler ’s

leadership. Speechmaking, parades, and

public shows of suppor t were expected Reporters

and

editors

had

to

prove

their

“racial

and

political

loyalty”.

on these occasions. Failure to enter into The

Hitler

state

thus

controlled

“ownership,

authorship

and

content

of

the National Socialist spirit could be the

newspapers”,

as

Noakes

and

Pridham

observed

in

their

documentary

noted and repor ted. analysis,

Propaganda

and

Indoctrination

in

Germany,

1933–9

203

4

A U H TO R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

Literature, music, and lm

The

Propaganda

lm.

to

The

attack

not

task

and

aligned

works

of

what

in

Berlin

of

to

of

“the

writing

VII

(subject

●

of

to

main

●

in

●

(front

and

the

all,

a

In

Mein

threat

music,

the

composers

left

for

state

but

from

(not

by

In

1935

with

1933

not

only

controlling

control

ensured

and

and

only

for

public

publish

conformed

the

over

that

available

work

it

May

considered

included

Rigorous

as

their

treatment

authors.

libraries

long

10

also

Writers

circulate

the

on

books

works

foreign

produce

as

which

by

emphasized

the

Socialist

stressing

Quex,

only

all

to

it

one

of

German

common

heroism

experience

Weltanschauung,

as

reected

the

uniqueness

of

the

actively

in

by

any

fell

Public

same

and

cultural

of

or

were

not

Jewish

composers

year

Hans

the

of

the

such

by

of

Nazi

Westmar

youth,

as

Paul

were

an

too

and

music

by

“Modern”

writers,

on

were

and

musicians

them.

Ministry

cinema

background

lms

to

era

favourite

purges

martyr

often

Weimar

Hindemith

the

released,

SA

and

the

play

Like

of

German

works

“degenerate”

Weimar’s

propaganda

and

to

placed

control

Jewish

of

Mendelssohn).

Hitler.

inuence

for

banned

(Hitler’s

allowed

as

restrictions

the

model

the

considered

mode)

under

the

aspirations”

(such

being

the

as

that

Wagner

composers

of

superiority

inltration”

Enlightenment.

of

Nazi

basis

cultural

works

key

because

music

the

background

works

the

promoted

on

Socialist

the

stressed

others.

performance,

of

was

producers,

took

place

SA-Mann

celebrate

(Horst

soon

Brand,

the

Wessel)

role

of

killed

respectively.

Riefenstahl

on

which

orchestras

stronghold

lm

the

novels

“Jewish

industry

and

That

Leni

not

through

to

of

or

of

and

but

Führer

justied

Jewish

murdered

based

stress

a

states

communists,

Will,

204

a

the

lauded

written

a

and

SA,

occurred

printed

view”.

publish

entrusted

and

VII)

established

was

German

lm

1933.

Hitlerjunge

the

permitted

over

was

music

foreign

considered

after

race

public

Propaganda

actors,

was

was

Nationalist

of

“National

from

Germany’s

of

the

Kampf

to

experimental

atonal

party

experience),

bonds

increasing

the

composer),

banned

to

music,

ideology

indication

The

but

Nazi

“world

burning

people”.

bookshops

(ethnology),

Censorship

reected

early

population.

Department

(regional

German/Aryan

were

the

literature,

spirit)

Rassenkunde

writing.

to

the

present,

Ministry

Nazi

were

by

outpourings

German

Above

the

Writers

Heimatroman

●

and

Nazi

literature

over

German

past

authors,

to

promoting

the

the

the

unable

An

of

promote

categories:

battle

works

of

elds

to

to

were

exile.

presided

the

only

views

party

into

available

scrutiny

Fronterlebnis

in

the

Goebbels

houses,

acceptable

consumption.

four

soul

not

“non-German”

writers,

literature

publishing

of

driven

Goebbels

German

Department

output

ideals

and

inuenced

was

alternative

considered

where

poisonous

those

the

1933,

was

also

propaganda

eliminate

to

after

Ministry

of

the

1934

unity

of

medium

produced

her

Nuremburg

the

of

party

lm

but

could

lm

rally.

to

be

documentary

Party

build

rallies

the

screened

cult

Triumph

were

of

meant

the

throughout

of

Führer,

the

the

to

which

nation.

C H A P T E R

In

1938

Riefenstahl

went

on

4 . 2 :

to

H I T l E R ’ S

produce

C O N S O l I D A T I O N

Olympia

based

on

the

O F

P O W E R ,

19 3 4 – 19 3 5

1936

Triumph of the Will Berlin

Olympic

focused

the

less

Games,

on

the

monolithic

once

more

competition

nature

of

the

a

and

cinematographic

the

National

competitors

Socialist

state

celebration

but

on

and

its

Piers Brendon described this lm as

portraying

“brilliant and repulsive” and one that

leader.

“elevated propaganda into an ar t form”. In By

the

Second

World

War,

lms

with

an

anti-Semitic

bias

were

being

it, according to Brendon, “Hitler descends produced

(The

Rothschilds’

Shares

in

Waterloo ,

The

Jew

Süss)

and

wartime

from the clouds, his plane casting production

was

geared

to

sustaining

morale

–

as

was

the

case

in

the

the shadow of a cross over marching Allied

nations.

While

an

estimated

1363

feature

lms

were

produced

stormtroopers” in a scene “heavy with during

the

regime,

not

all

–

or

even

the

majority

–

were

overtly

messianic symbolism… [in which] Hitler propagandistic.

Even

Goebbels

realized

that

the

population

required

tried to inspire the devotion of the people more

than

simply

a

lm

diet

of

Nazi

ideology.

by presenting himself as the incarnation

of their destiny”.

The theatre

Goebbels

being

was

the

sympathies.

situation

ed

rst

in

to

anti-Nazi

process

on

The

the

of

the

early

the

communism

then

The

martyr

theatre

German

and

In

in

as

USA,

became

a

theatre

under

Schlageter

the

Schiller

vehicle

nationalism,

output

parodying

itself,

past

for

and

included

a

the

was

Hanns

–

the

Brecht

Ui,

play

Johst,

based

Franco-Belgian

Shakespeare

and

echoed

Berthold

his

during

by

result

Arturo

Chamber

1923

the

leftist

where

of

as

and

countries

music.

Reich

such

Goethe

Jewish

foreign

the

plays

productions,

with

and

Rise

Theatre

pieces

While

such

the

power.

killed

Ruhr.

to

to

lm,

Resistible

Reich

theatre

producers

playwrights

to

the

and

propaganda

the

of

supervising

literature,

as

rise

playwrights

virtues

of

of

and

such

Nazi

of

increasingly

the

ight

Nazi

of

actors

elds

through

occupation

German

of

Denmark

sponsored

an

charge

works

controlled

who

in

purging

and

were

renowned

permitted,

performances

present,

and

that

the

exalted

evils

of

democracy.

Ar t

The

Nazi

they

state

claimed,

“Jewish

for

in

Arts

their

example)

(Entartete

form

was

with

the

the

Stalin

Third

and

galleries

Hitler

art

of

…

(Klee,

or

and

to

–

as

of

subject

as

of

in

join

artists

what

raids

by

art

of.

forms

The

Snyder

family

by

pretentiousness

the

USSR

“engineers

of

under

the

such

Storm

to

approved

as

Nazi

as

–

to

the

remove

product

tasked

art

in

paintings

that

Amazons”,

seen

with

or

visual

marching

rubbish”.

were

for

art”

expressionism

crazy

–

vetted

such

artists.

ofcials

of

to

in

of

Kokoschka,

bare-bosomed

and

were

work

Troopers

Stalin

soul”

and

(the

and

Chamber

Socialism,

message

which

“degenerate

Nazi

referred

scenes,

harvesting

by

National

a

and

of

art,

sickness

latter

Grosz,

art

of

as

unable

of

of

Judenrepublik

and

the

exhibitions

to

spirit

the

Culture

to

many

–

perceived

exhibitions

the

fruit

of

had

era

Kandinsky,

modern

rustic

Hitler

mounted

disapproved

“purged

Reich

the

Again,

in

“Bolshevization”

Weimar

Chamber

Artists

were

not

the

the

what

sponsored

projection

referred

messages

country

banners,

words

Reich

government

heroism

their

other

a

decadence”

which

“stressed

combat

reliability.

considered

“Jewish

cubism,

in

and

To

arts,

the

the

Kunst)

Museums

anything

left

as

eliminate

established.

political

conditions

of

the

were

to

characterized

Republic”).

decadence

Visual

sought

had

as

in

Artists

what

spreading

the

regime.

205

4

A U H TO R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

Th cts of popgd

The

constant

leader

at

through

arts

information

the

same

print,

provide

a

of

notoriously

believed

A

the

how

to

of

and

opposition

One

of

most

being

that

reported

and

or

the

those

conformed.

an

of

force

the

ideology

portrayals

through

Nazi

of

among

and

the

alternatives

approved

even

Propaganda

of

and

in

did

visual

a

its

indoctrination

not

the

20th

learned

and

all

a

question.

policy

barrage

meant

sense

by

a

being

the

to

fear

of

acceptance

restored

state

and

Hitler

communists/socialists

to

fear

did

not

Germans,

the

succumbed

grudging

were

idolized

little

diminished

already

to

constant

foreign

caused

through

already

had

are

who

not

the

century

fortunes

widest

Those

limited.

card-carrying

among

Germany

denunciation,

partly

democrats

consent

in

“atomization”

economic

Jews,

was

accuracy.

economic

of

of

supporters

not

of

in

societies

and

any

who

fear

product

outspoken

and

or

exceedingly

punished

were

atmosphere

popular

a

pride

Nazis.

dedicated

as

and

who

with

Those

was

literate

partly

Germany’s

under

stage,

successes

active

the

of

negative

propaganda

repression,

doctrine,

regime,

adulation

indoctrination

make

accepted.

that

the

the

of

successful

difcult

eagerly

party

diet

of

constant

population.

combination

of

ow

as

screen,

heavy

well-educated

Estimates

time

as

long

they

necessarily

although

urge

as

to

the

produce

mixture

participate

in

any

dissent.

Th pct of fog poc

National

its

to

Socialism’s

promises

many,

Hitler

its

“had

policy”,

conict

to

the

that

1941

20

fortunes

Union’s

The

of

to

206

years

after

in

four

to

a

terms,

Japan)

vague.

But

pursuit

did

in

of

economic

While

Johnson

have

a

despair

claimed

very

preparation

expansionist

that

specic

for

and

appealing

national

possible

goals

(the

economy”).

before

by

and

1939

Britain

its

The

following

and

from

a

–

in

in

as

a

–

1941

It

was

that

German

for

European

the

great

of

1939–

not

until

National

underestimation

repel

with

allowed

campaigns

Europe.

June

massive

then

conjunction

France

military

victories

Bolshevism

and

re-emergence

Versailles.

absorb

Paul

he

of

problems.

armies

of

the

Socialist

the

over

Soviet

the

next

years.

of

policy

of

the

impressive

against

declined,

foreign

in

product

Germany

moves

Germany

destruction

military

arise

“defence

a

economic

policy.

rearming

policy

ability

formation

and

of

largely

remained

appeasement

resulted

“crusade”

three

or

foreign

expansion

power

was

might

of

was

Germany’s

economic

which

policy

rise

promises

no

Wehrwirtschaft,

Hitler’s

solve

National

decisions

hostile

the

could

not

made

grand

Third

Socialism

by

defeat.

and

1945

Hitler.

alliance

Reich

in

that,

its

was

These

in

Axis

the

consequence

decisions

economic,

partners

led

to

the

demographic

(principally

Italy

and

C H A P T E R

4 . 2 :

H I T l E R ’ S

C O N S O l I D A T I O N

O F

P O W E R ,

19 3 4 – 19 3 5

Th nz g’s fog poc, 1933–1939

In

the

ways

Nazis’

little

principally

against

rise

in

the

all

and

the

the

ethnic

state)

the

resources

was

based

but

desire

on

the

of

also

Hitler’s

of

revise

was

were

in

the

of

material

calls

for

a

Europe

Poland

within

in

and

for

before

east

–

the

Not

of

what

enlarged

conquest

and

did

inclusion

an

of

land

interpretation

only

Soviet

after

but

(the

Hitler’s

regime

the

and

Resentment

party

borders

USSR.

of

some

politicians,

Germany

power.

the

in

Versailles.

Hitler’s

the

the

the

elimination

policy

of

to

were

nationalist

Greater

world

resources

the

foreign

“Diktat”

exclusive

German

in

ensure

the

objectives

German

Lebensraum

for

land

policy

other

not

central

basis

gaining

would

mainstay

to

acquisition

as

foreign

those

treaty

Nazis

guaranteed

war

from

Germans

and

provide

power,

post-war

differentiate

of

to

different

its

would

this

population,

state

–

also

Lebensraum

“Living space”: the idea that Germany

needed more land in order to survive. A

concept used even before the First World

War, when it had been used basically

a

in reference to colonial ambitions,

1933.

Lebensraum became an important element Fritz

Fischer

commented

on

the

continuity

of

German

foreign

policy

of Nazi ideology and foreign policy. “directions”,

observable

seeing

in

Stresemann.

political

as

War.

annexing

territory

While

German

by

parts

such

would

of

as

Stresemann

geared

revision

to

of

the

my

opinion

in

the

more

–

are

immediate

and

valued

great

of

but

Crown

there

eras

for

seen

continuer

in

the

respect

in

a

great

future…

tasks

too

that

solution

He

of

the

First

power,

inuence

over

land.

for

his

was

diplomatic

pursuing

the

stated

a

ground

in

a

for

private

1925:

confront

of

of

Russian

preparing

manner.

and

“Mitteleuropa”

fertile

he

and

September

the

its

and

outbreak

and

internationally

peaceful

in

a

spheres

for

Europe,

concessions

Prince

three

establishing

of

the

French

II

economic

idea

after

trends

Wilhelm

German

especially

peace

in

of

of

of

the

German

reparations

foreign

policy

question,

l Ta

In

a

the

plans

reduction

winning

Versailles

former

the

interests

to

from

were

Europe,

achieved

foreign

policy

policy

as

Bethmann-Hollweg

entail

Ukraine,

the

respects

Germany’s

eastern

the

in

letter

foreign

Chancellor

This

some

(hegemony)

achievements

the

in

Pre-Weimar

dominance

described

World

Hitler

the

1

protection

of

Germans

abroad,

those

ten

to

twelve

millions

of

our

Research and thinking skills

Why did the regime adopt its foreign

kindred

policy aims: for example, to over turn

who

now

live

under

a

foreign

yoke

in

foreign

lands,

the

readjustment

of

our

grievances caused by perceived

eastern

frontiers;

the

recovery

of

Danzig,

the

Polish

corridor,

and

a

correction

injustices inicted upon the state; to

of

the

frontier

in

Upper

Silesia.

bolster the prestige of the regime by

appealing to nationalistic instincts; As

he

stressed,

though,

in

relation

to

the

use

of

military

force

to

achieve

to distract the attention of the these

goals,

“That,

alas,

we

do

not

possess”.

Hence

a

case

can

be

made

that

population from a failing or lacklustre Hitler

was

in

some

ways

pursuing

goals

that

had

been

present

under

previous

domestic programme? government

systems

–

but

in

a

far

more

ambitious

and

brutal

manner.

2 In

a

speech

to

the

Reichstag

on

28

April

1939,

Hitler

With specic reference to actions,

declared:

discuss in what ways, and with what

I

have

further

tried

to

liquidate

that

Treaty

sheet

by

sheet,

whose

448

Articles

success, foreign policy objectives were

contain

the

vilest

rape

that

nations

and

human

beings

have

ever

been

expected

achieved in the shor t and longer term.

to

submit

to.

I

have

restored

to

the

Reich

the

provinces

grabbed

from

us

in

3 1919;

I

have

led

millions

of

deeply

unhappy

Germans,

who

have

been

In both cases, was there any

snatched

evidence to suggest that the regime’s away

from

us,

back

into

the

Fatherland;

I

have

restored

the

thousand-year-old

foreign policy was a continuation of historical

unity

of

German

living

space;

and

I

have

attempted

to

accomplish

all

the policy of previous governments, that

without

shedding

blood

and

without

inicting

the

sufferings

of

war

on

my

or did it exhibit a contrast – in aims people

or

any

other .

I

have

accomplished

all

this,

as

one

who

21

years

ago

was

and methods? still

an

unknown

worker

and

soldier

of

my

people,

by

my

own

efforts...

207

4

A U H TO R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

As

early

as

March

1935,

when

the

Nazi

government

announced

military

Willi Brandt (1913–1992) conscription

The future chancellor (SPD) of the Federal

SOPADE

in

deance

report

of

the

restrictions

of

the

Treaty

of

Versailles,

a

stated:

Republic of Germany (1969–1974), Enormous

enthusiasm

on

17

March.

All

of

Munich

was

out

on

the

streets.

Brandt was at this time a member of the You

can

force

a

people

to

sing,

but

you

can’t

force

them

to

sing

with

that

Socialist Workers’ Par ty, having left the kind

of

enthusiasm

…

The

trust

in

Hitler’s

political

talent

and

honest

will

is

SPD in 1931. He rejoined the SPD in 1948. becoming

He

As

is

greater,

loved

Kershaw

by

as

Hitler

has

increasingly

gained

ground

among

the

people.

many.

points

out:

l Ta

Thinking and communication

The

bold

moves

in

foreign

policy

that

Hitler

undertook

to

overthrow

the

skills

shackles

of

Versailles

and

reassert

Germany’s

national

strength

and

prestige

Discuss the following questions: were,

1

Were German foreign policy moves in

therefore,

accomplished

guaranteed

without

massive

popular

support

as

long

as

they

could

be

bloodshed.

the period 1933–1935: Between

a) reckless, and a threat to general

European peace?

policy

did

1933

occur,

the

widespread

OR

to

and

successes

the

in

population

fervour.

domestic

outbreak

righting

policies

A

the

of

accepted

successful

linked

to

war

wrongs

in

of

the

Europe

1919

conict

revisionist

economic

in

1939,

ensured

with

attack

recovery

Nazi

that,

foreign

when

resignation,

on

and

the

if

war

not

“Diktat”,

allied

full

employment,

the

state

b) shrewdly planned, cautious moves meant

that

most

Germans

not

targeted

as

enemies

of

(and

largely acceptable to other European punished

accordingly)

gave

their

support

to

the

regime

in

the

war

effort

–

great powers, which were either not

because

of

belief

in

Hitler’s

racist

or

anti-Semitic

beliefs

but

because

consumed by their own internal he

had

restored

German

pride.

The

manufactured

cult

of

the

Führer,

problems or a feeling of meacupism? became

2

What factors during the above period

prevented Hitler ’s pursuit of a forceful

even

ceaselessly

national

stronger

to

as

promote

salvation

of

the

state

adulation

Germany.

monopoly

of

the

Again,

of

the

“leader”

as

media

and

Kershaw

his

worked

role

in

the

indicated:

expansionist Nazi foreign policy? On

3

a

clandestine

visit

to

Germany

from

his

Norwegian

exile

in

the

second

What factors explain the adoption half

of

1936,

Willi

Brandt,

no

less,

admitted

much

the

same:

that

providing

of a signicantly more adventurous work

had

won

the

regime

support

even

among

those

who

had

once

voted

for

foreign policy after 1935/36? the

From

meacupism

A feeling of guilt or responsibility for past

actions provoking German nationalism and

bitterness due to the “unjust suering”

inicted on Germany in 1919 at Versailles

and

Left.

1936

in

to

early

conjunction

resist

breaches

gains

were

“universally

many

l Ta

justied

the

–

and

remilitarization

impressive”

were

and

with

the

Treaty

impressive

uncontested

that

of

1939,

with

be

of

growth

of

the

that

passed

of

Versailles,

popular.

response

“convinced

cannot

the

reluctance

A

of

German

great

German

SOPADE

Rhineland

of

the

over.

The

last

to

foreign

report

few

policy

Hitler’s

upon

population

foreign

policy

days

power

physically

on

remarked

German

Germany’s

military

powers

the

and

the

demands

have

been

fact

are

marked

Research and thinking skills by

With reference to the origin and purpose

big

fresh

among

the

advances

in

the

Führer’s

personal

reputation,

including

workers”.

of SOPADE reports, assess the values and Similarly,

the

union

with

Austria

in

March

1938

was

noted

in

another

limitations of such reports for historians SOPADE

report

as

having

produced

“enormous

personal

gains

in

studying the eect of Hitler ’s foreign policy credibility

and

prestige”

for

Hitler

and

the

regime.

Any

doubts

among

moves up to 1939. the

majority

settlement

“wrongs”

imposed

Hitler

208

and

of

Territorial

of

the

1919

the

about

potential

were

acquisition

upon

and

Germans

risks

wisdom

involved

of

challenging

had

the

evaporated

as

Versailles

the

corrected.

and

Germany

National

the

successful

produced,

Socialist

revision

as

state

of

Kershaw

as

“a

the

humiliations

noted,

defender

of

an

image

German

of

rights”

C H A P T E R

and

Hitler

without

●

the

as

an

accomplished

bloodshed”.

restoration

this

was

really

population

and

the

restoration

●

the

recovery

●

Anschluss

the

of

in

of

of

had

keeping

a

who

C O N S O l I D A T I O N

had

presided

industrial

of

military

achieved

O F

P O W E R ,

“triumphs

over:

to

Germany

(although

League-supervised

plebiscite

of

with

Saarland

the

19 3 4 – 19 3 5

Versailles

the

Treaty)

sovereignty

Rhineland

Austria

in

H I T l E R ’ S

statesman

he

rich

result

the

with

Reich,

1938

the

the

●

into

By

4 . 2 :

and

partial

the

incorporation

fullment

of

the

of

goal

the

of

Sudetenland

building

a

“Greater

Germany”.

The

of

result,

“support

popularity,

Whether

World

all

prestige

gains

were

or

the

the

living

than

in

effective

German

of

Kershaw,

the

of

fact

was

the

German

regime’s

a

winning

people

by

and

of

a

series

foreign

policy

carefully

the

regime

unparalleled

of

before

planned

pragmatic

and

successes

state.

became

foreign

in

Edgar

aware

policy

foreign

debate)

policy

were

Hitler’s

Second

executed

opportunistic

Feuchtwanger

that

the

and

structuralist/functionalist

that

Socialist

in

the

acclaim”.

versus

I

of

product

result

Germany,

coups

and

the

the

National

to

sections

intentionalist

relevant

for

in

the

War

blueprint

(the

according

to

his

moves

less

generated

stressed

apparently

fundamental

is

support

that,

“While

sensationally

hold

on

the

people”.

Th nz g’s fog poc, 1939–1945

Feuchtwanger,

pointed

as

a

to

1939

Despite

meant

of

falter

imagined

March

in

and

after

led

military

The

to

a

Hitler’s

of

June

war

errors

the

the

in

the

grand

grand

of

of

alliance

United

did

USSR

States

–

–

his

chain

of

made

not

after

Hitler

and

Japan’s

lack

Moscow,

ensure

(Operation

myth

from

forces

occur

was

success”.

by

between

would

1938,

Hitler,

own

made

German

in

that

advice,

of

policy

“the

of

Britain

to

prisoner

decisions

alliance

in

“success”:

listening

“a

London

the

exile

foreign

breaking

isolated

invasion

on

in

became

overextension

to

this

into

Hitler’s

interest

he

the

previously

of

went

with

victories,

1941–1942,

formation

declaration

Pearl

no

since

comparison

and

family

with

infallibility”.

after

resources

1941,

gambler”

his

associated

eventually

ultimately

Washington,

The

with

problem

Germany’s

that,

victory.

who

the

“high-risk

liable

and

out

Allied

until

late

Barbarossa)

attack

on

Harbor.

Signicantly,

backing,

internal

destroy

just

foreign

as

opposition

the

foreign

policy

but

policy

failure

was

success

to

had

provoke

overwhelming

gained

not

external

the

only

regime

stirrings

opposition,

popular

of

which

would

Reich.

209

4.3

The aims and resuts of Nazi poicies

Cocptu udstdg

Key questions

➔

To what extent did Nazi domestic policies help to keep the regime in power?

Key concepts

➔

Signicance

➔

Consequence

Ht ’s dostc pocs, 1933–1945

Having

gained

economic

or

ills

power,

that

incompetently

unemployment

the

they

Nazis

had

addressing.

was

by

far

were

blamed

Of

the

expected

the

the

most

to

previous

pressing

produce

system

economic

solutions

for

to

neglecting

problems,

prominent.

Employment

When

Hitler

around

6

Impressive

was

came

million;

as

already

this

production

employment

removed

Victims

for

of

incentives

marriage

young,

fact

for

for

job

In

pursuit

and

of

a

and

to

in

to

give

by

help

1936

did

up

the

of

honour

National

rebuild

in

the

did

previous

order

to

labour

from

tables.

of

qualify

service

by

ofcial

detract

and

that

Disincentives

conscription

not

industry

restrictions

of

embarked

as

of

self-sufciency,

promises

Socialism

Plan);

offering

in

in

based

for

for

1935.

statistics.

from

the

government-inspired

heavy

arms

economic

the

military

jobless.

a

recovery

reduction

measures

the

of

numbers

various

the

economy

of

as

plus

at

shortage.

economic

unemployment

count

gures

stood

labour

Four-Year

employment

large

from

breach

the

a

of

an

series

from

not

of

introduction

placements

to

a

that

much

(and

by

compulsory

arose

note

employment,

removed

policy

to

bread”),

programmes

after

service

and

and

to

addition,

establishment

unemployment

intention

“Diktat”

(“Work

civil

followed

projects

its

In

population

remain

men

experiencing

manipulated

the

opportunities

works

the

unemployment

was

important

war

measures

of

is

to

women

were

these

announced

the

the

to

single

“massaging”

1935.

of

of

chancellor,

1932.

were

sections

loans,

it

late

possible

women

as

Germany

linked

unemployed

that

public

of

was

purges

Technically

This

by

statistics

large

married

ofce

1939

sounds,

evident

unemployment

on

to

by

in

“Arbeit

on

job

Germany

Versailles

by

deance

und

Brot”

creation

economy.

Economic recovery

Hitler

plans.

viewed

The

crippled

210

economic

lessons

of

Germany’s

reconstruction

the

war

Allied

effort

as

Blockade

and

vital

of

for

the

contributed

future

First

expansionist

World

hugely

to

War,

defeat,

which

had

showed

the

C H A P T E R

necessity

states.

for

He

Republic

to

building

was

and

capitalize

a

series

of

economic

with

of

of

Economics

“the

private

with

and

with

Under

1933,

to

enforced

as

deal

with

the

rearmament.

It

was

as

1939”.

Italy’s

autostrada,

it

observers,

Schacht’s

pointed

vehicles

“New

industry

as

did

as

witnessed

bills

a

way

acted

of

as

involvement

when

arms

the

a

of

the

Germany

form

of

still

not

in

that

the

the

were

a

business.

from

March

were

of

works

construction

ran

for

preferred

surface

and

ascertained

trains

fracture

in

similar

many

war.

east-west,

spring

to

fascist

German

and

work.

use

covertly

in

in

nancing

project,

of

the

environment

military

only

prestige

regime

necessary

road

which

placed

thrived

public

motorways

up

of

note

“Mefo”

as

via

nancing

well

enough

bills

These

issued

as

promoting

strong

the

under

priorities

(motorway)

armaments.

currency

government

was

restrictions

of

plan

imagination

the

of

of

rip

visible

promissory

Reichsbank

new

to

blueprint

entrusted

Ministry

being

for

Reichsbank,

“Actually

providing

production

prots

1934–1937),

linked,

tolerances

the

industry

trade-union-free

the

Socialism

contracts

the

other

problems.

economy”

between

P O l I C I E S

years.

were

the

N A Z I

chance

recovery

of

O F

Weimar

National

relationship

infrastructure

would

capture

as

this

Autobahn

out,

job

national

provided

majority

highly

well

Plan”

and

a

government-sponsored

were

the

by

Government

then

partly

and

load-bearing

Nevertheless,

foreign

heavy

tracked

whose

were

that

the

a

immediate

the

German

of

and

to

on

the

depression

economic

that

Economics,

communications

Burleigh

thought

bridges,

the

of

a

that

president

railway

coincidence

although,

and

issues

in

the

enterprise

partnership

Socialism,

unemployed

as

a

partner

orders

(as

of

full”.

“stability”,

Minister

Both

such

provide

no

ensured

National

Schacht

then

tasks

to

dependence

well-thought-out

private

German

R E S U lT S

themselves)

of

a

A N D

destabilized

adopted

than

declared

the

senior

Nazis

solutions

and

of

had

misery

measures

aims

have

government

Hjalmar

would

will

the

A I M S

avoid

crisis

rather

Hitler

present

the

as

the

business

political

and

programmes

Big

T H E

would

rapid

the

general

“to

Under

lucrative

see

regime.

with

(such

relieve

nding

to

companies

–

government.

set

was

German

of

the

the

that

economic

programmes

economy

industry

period

hoc

out

to

meant

planning.

from

that

opponents

tended

ad

economy

failure

power

carrying

guidance

the

have

as

an

aware

given

on

Maintaining

Historians

also

4 . 3 :

a

a

prime

(a

form

dummy

arms

way

arms

to

to

bills

production.

of

hiding

The

the

production,

publicly

of

company)

at

challenge

a

time

the

Versailles.

Public works projects

Labour-intensive

hospitals,

employment

cheap

recovery.

1935

for

camps

on

the

and

At

all

Rally,

sense

but

of

purpose

labour

voluntary,

also

to

aged

on

the

described

building

how

000

be

over

Germans.

used

25.

the

and

Shirer,

members

houses,

motorway

State

RAD

and

projects

William

50

many

the

19

control

building

the

(RAD:

in

between

camps.

for

and

could

service

authoritarian

in

projects,

railways,

Reichsarbeitdienst

Germans

ensured

land

a

the

and

regimented

rst

indoctrination

Party

of

works

bridges

and

establishment

that

public

canals,

to

Labour

were

offered

regime,

German

battalions

who

the

RAD,

Party

1934

“a

in

and

worked

to

the

meant

compulsory

subject

attending

the

the

Service)

promote

became

recruits,

of

For

Labour

schools,

scheme,

work

mainly

political

Nuremberg

highly

trained,

211

4

A U H TO R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

semi-military

morning

German

into

a

spirit

group

sunlight

spectators

perfect

of

fanatical

go

1934

in

Nazi

sparkled

mad

goose-step.”

these

compulsory

of

which

with

It

joy

was

volunteers

youths…

on

their

when,

the

Standing

shiny

spades

without

government’s

would

be

adopted

in

the

early

suddenly

warning,

expectation

after

the

made

they

that

service

the

broke

the

became

1935.

Göring’s Four-Year Plan

In

October

1936,

introduced.

industrial

interest

the

point

of

of

intention

t

Göring

war

the

in

coal,

mineral

claimed

of

the

withstanding

tactics

in

the

to

subsequent

hope

of

years,

forces

areas

any

of

the

gaining

was

still

that

has

“Under

been

One

the

ad

borders,

to

living

other

a

at

revival

the

the

of

iron,

of

1933

the

of

of

a

a

and

but

a

increase

build

German

be

to

his

achieved:

the

economy

everything,

war

the

committing

for

for

eet,

in

land

fortify

production

of

everything

else.

can

at

On

activity

do

same

air

extended

[substitute]

to

the

tear

basis

one

time

down

of

or

[the

them

–

the

the

and

of

economy

–

of

were

up

the

war

were

of

and

with

the

attitude

in

dark

of

the

Real

in

by

days

many

than

production

commodities

the

of

and

fact

the

workers

heavily

place

(actual

impressive

products

for

took

wages

Germany’s

other

consumer

compensated

worker

production

less

concerning

chemicals,

comparison

socialist

of

production.

workers

Shortages

however,

a

eld

publicized

machinery,

in

the

goods

German

regime

summed

of

in

consumer

for

wages

that

depression

when

industrialized

frozen

there

he

worker]

they

had

would

four,

have

ve,

hired

even

on

six

with

years

Satan

of

cited

Ruhr

unemployment

himself.

was

years.

area

commented,

They

of

argued

and

and

either

the

1939

arose:

new

ersatz

buildings,

one

1938

economic

the

by

one-third

problem

to

somewhere

which

that

around

of

Overy

capable

Blitzkrieg

estimate

level

hitherto,

explosives,

victories

attrition

for

grandiose

not

the

quick

observer

battle

the

reached,

Richard

before

of

armaments

them

but

on

fundamental

for

people

not

economy

Pridham

massive

installations

to

interest,

declared

to

shape

relied

Democrat

that

a

war

sources

megalomaniacal

order

one

Germany

production,

helped

dictatorship

up

of

that

were

resources

than

external

…

only

He

impressive.

strong

which

Social

build

the

purposes.

levels,

Crew

in

bit

the

steel,

opinion

who

cities

the

employment

David

to

gigantic

power)

rearmament

at

the

is

had

and

was

dimensions.

statistics

pig

of

expense

purchasing

of

construct

little

unlimited

The

build

standards

or

exiled

simultaneously

to

parts

on

tasks

Plan”

war-related

bringing

plan

were

Noakes

increased”

innitum,

materials,

large

lash

greatly

cannot

forces

reliant

An

the

conict

rather

Germany

materials.

main

much-needed

unprepared.

“there

the

aluminium

produce

was

raw

of

as

onwards,

campaigns,

in

years”.

long-term

1939

“Four-Year

operational

increases

to

that

view,

two

goals

such

a

expansion

self-sufciency”.

were

four

Germany

its

one

economic

four

failure

leadership,

major

proclaimed

projected

oil

a

only

within

specic

that

military

and

armed

although

and

Hitler

within

for

Göring’s

heralded

nation;

political

that,

be

Under

212

the

Germany’s

“must

under

plan

production.

the

that

The

behind

C H A P T E R

4 . 3 :

T H E

A I M S

A N D

R E S U lT S

O F

N A Z I

P O l I C I E S

Cultural and social policies The Strength through Joy (Kraft

Stripped

of

trade

unions

with

which

to

engage

in

collective

bargaining

durch Freude/KdF) movement for

wages

and

working

conditions

and

forbidden

to

strike,

German

The DAF established the KdF to oer workers

were

provided

by

the

government

with

the

alternative

of

incentives to the working population in organizations

such

as

the

“Strength

through

Joy”

movement

under

the

the form of leisure facilities at heavily supervision

of

the

German

Labour

Front

( Deutsche

Arbeitsfront/DAF),

subsidized rates, under the watchful which

the

Nazis

introduced

after

the

prohibition

of

independent

trade

eye of the Nazi state. On the surface a unions

in

1933.

Harmony

in

the

workplace

was

meant

to

produce

social

recreational organization meant to raise peace

and

increased

production

in

the

national

of

Germany,

interest.

worker morale and production levels, the

In

1949

by

the

in

the

Federal

Institute

für

Demoskopie

“Consequences

of

looked

the

social

back

and

on

Republic

National

Nazi

economic

(Public

Socialism”

regime

provisions

with

it

a

survey

Opinion

reported

some

offered,

conducted

Institute)

many

fondness

of

in

KdF oered a wide variety of activities,

entitled

the

such as theatre visits, spor ts, hiking, folk

respondents

relation

to

the

claiming:

dancing, excursions by train to foreign

countries, and even cruises on purpose-

built ocean liners. Such “carrots” would,

according to Rober t Ley, head of the DAF, The

guaranteed

pay

packet,

order,

KdF

and

the

smooth

running

of

the

allow the worker to “lose the last traces of political

machinery…

Thus

National

Socialism

makes

them

think

merely

of

inferiority feelings he may have inherited work,

adequate

nourishment…

and

the

absence

of

disarray

in

political

life.

from the past” and full the plan not

Nazi

terror

and

the

destruction

produced

by

Hitler’s

foreign

policy,

only to boost output but also contribute

while

obviously

acknowledged,

formed

only

a

subsidiary

part

of

the

towards the sense of solidarity required

reminiscences

of

those

polled.

Loss

of

personal

freedom

under

the

in the new Volksgemeinschaft

regime

was

enjoyed

For

of

comparison

Schoenbaum,

state

an

in

compensated

by

those

example

of

“objective

Socialism

…

a

social

was

type

lived

for

good

paternalism

…

like

young

old

of

perceived

last

of

days

a

of

who

reality”

in

benets

that

were

Weimar.

appraisal

(and

process

material

as

of

the

were

opposed

which

National

not

the

Socialist

targeted)

to

era

the

of

was

grimness

National

as:

no

other

and

at

it

social

–

years

selective

through

reality”

united

by

the

remembered

society

and

to

“interpreted

opportunities

Deal

this

who

for

old,

the

national

in

recent

classes

same

and

time

purpose

German

and

…

history,

masses,

a

world

a

society

of

achievement

a

…

society

that

of

was

New

authoritarian

…

The Nazi war time economy

The

up

performance

with

the

of

the

question

of

Nazi

the

economy

extent

to

during

which

the

war

Hitler’s

years

was

Germany

bound

could

be

intentionaists considered

a

“polycratic

monolithic

‘Führer

state”

–

whether

it

was

a

centralized,

efcient,

Historians who argue that Hitler state’

or

whether

it

contained

a

bewildering

variety

encouraged deliberate chaos in the of

overlapping

authorities

–

what

Geary

refers

to

as

“personal

efdoms”

National Socialist state in order to create which

interfered

with

the

smooth

running

of

not

only

political

decision-

competing power centres that would making

but,

in

this

context,

the

organization

of

the

wartime

economy.

allow him to be the nal arbiter.

Whether

there

Nazi

was

a

policies

high

arose

degree

of

from

intentionalism

overlap

within

the

or

structuralism,

regime

structure

which

structuraists blurred

clear

lines

of

authority

in

specic

areas

and

led

to

Nazi

ofcials

People who stress the nature of the implementing

fragmented

policies

as

they

interpreted

what

they

believed

development of the NSDAP that moved was

the

Führer’s

will.

Gauleiters

of

the

occupied

states

acted

without

rapidly from an opposition par ty to the central

coordination

and

pursued

policies,

both

political

and

economic,

par ty of administration in 1933–1934. which

were

not

harnessed

effectively

to

promote

the

war

effort.

213

4

A U H TO R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

Nazi

failure

hampered

Competing

for

over

war

was

Fritz

the

unwilling

materials)

the

While

of

the

great

conict

in

Europe

an

to

exploitation

arrived

as

the

war

in

Union,

the

outweighed

Gordon

of

and

conquered

grab

the

scorched

Nazis,

the

the

1942,

war

credited

(three

the

Todt

with

occupied

raids

that

on

terms

The

of

army

technologies”

of

labour

costs

weaponry

and

adopted

been

fact

“New

that

a

partly

people

was

of

to

decision

to

North

to

military

USSR,

declare

and

Hitler

for

the

and

war

war

of

the

sought

move

in

but

also

ruthless

Hitler’s

forces

example,

but

population.

with.

Africa,

goals

drawn-out

territories.

deal

the

Blitzkrieg

through

resistance

unable

of

political

future

the

1939,

expansion

that

subjugate

produced

Balkans,

the

a

occupied

by

series

long,

after

economic

was

the

Order”

was

the

made

and

an

and

on

economic

expansion

Expansion

the

the

of

Soviet

USA,

resulted

opposition

that

far

resources.

the

Nazis

Europe,

instead,

occupied

of

of

to

have

their

Soviets,

an

in

the

to

“simpler”

militarily

replenish

of

could,

chosen

populations

a

the

informed

the

USA

and

occupied

collaborate

policy

led

to

of

which

the

denied

loss

of

territories

with

smash

failure

underestimated

ever-broadening

saw

his

with

massive

by

by

1944

lacking

by

improving

weaponry

a

that

was

to

military

conict

state.

to

The

the

material

all

the

and

benet

Soviet

resources

Fritz

result

the

to

worked

of

Sauckel),

in

the

of

His

meet

to

the

geopolitical

in

was

production

in

1941),

conscription

Allied

Red

of

Speer

arms

than

massive

of

death

While

of

1944

labour

advance

resources

expansion

Speer.

efciency

produced

the

of

impossible.

Albert

programme

and

“the

the

victory

replacement

(headed

Germany

Hitler

rendered

signicantly

Germany,

military

the

that

but,

had

states

in

no

two-fths

1944.

“vanguard

had

effort.

–

effort.

more

combination

the

the

demands

1942

of

united

inability

war

times

a

policy

against

February

to

argued

the

increasing

the

of

of

resources

earth

and

hinder

By

vast

constituted

until

outset

war

efciency

standardized

sustain

conquest

Reich

western

alienated

from

The

Europe

the

had

the

to

intention

with

people

of

attained

masked

Germany’s

Wright

eastern

not

Germany’s

effort

combined

of

the

and

(1940–1942)

case

expensive

production

Union.

Eastern

emergence

the

from

resources

hampered

“which

production

resources

whose

war

aircraft

Germany

military

that

out,

Munitions

remained

were

were

for

the

of

administration

nation’s

pointed

rearmament

liberators

conict

Germany’s

in

as

conquerors

Racial

of

not

in

ensure

of

the

the

USSR.

Soviet

through

of

this

that

1939–1941

the

attempt

and

Plan

difcult

of

Minister

large-scale

strides

in

be

–

the

Four-Year

would

as

sacrice

the

wartime

Overy

production

to

and

central

as

weapons

for

USA

successes

a

mobilization

Todt

production”

(high-quality

by

establish

authorities,

example,

control

all

to

successful

Army

in

from

bombing

meant

supremacy”

faced

defeat.

Youth and education policies

By

necessity,

future

Youth

214

the

“Thousand

generations

was

to

act

Year

committed

as

the

to

standard

Reich”

the

envisaged

world

bearer

of

view

the

of

by

Hitler

the

NSDAP

Nazi

required

movement.

vision

of

the

future.

C H A P T E R

The

conditioning

and

organizations

…when

“Your

an

but

In

this

which

belongs

now

new

November

a

says,

to

stand

in

school

regime

us

in

“I

and

the

through

priority.

will

not

already…

new

In

over

will

In

a

A I M S

to

pass

short

A N D

R E S U lT S

extracurricular

November

come

You

camp.

T H E

1933

your

on.

time

they

I

N A Z I

P O l I C I E S

activities

Hitler

side”,

Your

O F

stated:

calmly

say,

descendants

will

know

nothing

community.”

1933

German

strenuous

youth

was

opponent

child

however,

of

4 . 3 :

this

youth

efforts

to

was

had

make

certainly

been

the

an

exaggeration

indoctrinated,

claim

a

reality

but

in

of

the

the

the

Nazi

extent

state

following

to

made

years.

The education system

Just

life,

as

Gleichschaltung

the

Nazis

Bernhard

and

Rust

Culture

bulwark

of

Schools

sought

was

and

the

and

of

their

instruction

Teachers’

teachers

of

From

the

regime.

In

was

healthy

to

whether

of

history

struggles

“evil

schools,

the

in

was

of

legacy”

dangers

Central

The

of

to

of

German

the

have

Weimar,

and

task

In

of

to

the

in

capable

promote

in

its

as

a

in

to

be

considered,

charge

National

of

message

was

to

subject

for

to

and

to

party

products

absolute

placed

ensure

youth,

indoctrination

end

the

Socialist

essential

intention

its

by

control.

of

the

imbued

loyalty

emphasis

on

to

with

the

sports,

(alb e i t

a

Soci al is t

to

to

of

gr e ate r

of

in

the

respect

their

nation–

teaching

past,

to

In1938

the

destroy

republic,

own

bee n

of

sc ho ol

the

a nd

ethos”

g ui de li n es

the

e xtr em e s)

fateful

great

the

and

the

German

struggle

of

for

history…

German

past

(it)

and

nation…

out ,

e ve n

much

f act

in

i n  ue n c e d

that

the

the

s yst e m

pr e- We i ma r

te a c h in g

e xi s t in g

by

t e ac he r s

un i ve r si t y

of

on

its

teaching

the

p oi nt e d

ha d

reection

a

the

The

efforts

Weimar

greatness,

P ri dham

nationalist

to

are

that:

future

thro ug h

which

Germany’s

its

backers”).

subject

tea chi ng

largely

völkisch

and

service.

of

in

incompetent

the

“bodies

contribution

military

greatness

people

and

a nd

hi s to ry

or

stressed

young

Hitler,

physical

“Jewish

is

to

movement

essence

mission

Nati o na l

the

and

identity,

“p a s s e d

many

of

Socialist

(and

Noakes

the

changes

Education

system

held

or

became

were

movement

be

the

The

produce

according

Education

bias ” ,

supplemented

the

to

of

education,

to

religious

1934

Science,

educational

teachers

Nazi

schools

reproduction

educating

in

as

by

sense,

teaching

and

external

themselves

this

of

in

order

degenerate

Germany

dominated

of

of

unt

the

and

April

future.

Lehrerbund )

of

In

Socialism

education.

produce,

nation,

of

faith

“nationalist

had

a

NS

tertiary

in

the

cleansed

for

the

Membership

in

to

National

Institute

Interestingly,

a

used

for

political

“Germanics”.

Bolshevism

internal

has

to

eld

the

or

in

system.

Minister

National

curriculum

and

core”

the

of

working

through

meant

and

presentation

undertaken

history,

Reich

background,

work

those

school

establishing

were

youth.

consciousness

biology,

implemented

the

then

aims

(NSLB

to

the

that

was

race

Sport

in

primary

young

the

Jewish

League

ensuring

with

state,

Aryan

wishing

conformity

appointed

universities

to

been

Nazify

tasked

Nazi

unsympathetic

because

had

to

of

era.

h is t or y

a pp ro ach e s

to

i ns ti tutio ns .

215

4

A U H TO R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

Biology

science

teaching

of

inculcating

TOK discussion

the

“principles”

whose

included

improving

of

a

need

for

“natural

existence

heavy

emphasis

population

racial

purity

selection”

threatened

the

on

through

in

and

race

the

Reich

by

elimination

Aryan

and

controlled

bloodline.

eugenics

adhering

of

(the

breeding),

to

“inferiors”

Hermann

Gauch’s

In school subjects such as geography and

New

Foundations

of

Racial

Science

(1934)

typied

the

manner

in

which

mathematics, “subliminal messages” were

pseudo-biological

teaching,

masquerading

as

fact,

was

delivered

in

the

incorporated into the teaching materials:

guise

of

“race

science”.

Replete

with

comments

about

the

“unmanliness

basic concepts were adulterated by the

and

barbarous

feelings”

of

the

non-Nordic,

the

dangers

of

the

admixture

introduction of political messages that

of

races,

the

lack

of

hygiene

of

non-Nordics

and

the

failure

of

such

non-

accompanied the provision of the basic

Nordics

to

clearly

enunciate

(“The

various

sounds

ow

into

each

other

skills relating to the subject. For example,

and

tend

to

resemble

the

sounds

of

animals,

such

as

barking,

snoring,

mathematics problems such as the

snifing,

and

squealing”),

this

widely

used

text

went

on

to

claim

that:

following were not uncommon:

A

The

To keep a mentally ill person costs

approx. 4 RM per day, a cripple

5.50 RM, a criminal 3.50 RM. Many

Nordic

We

are

the

creator

Nordic

skilled civil servants receive only

and

not

the

non-Nordic

justied,

of

man

all

therefore,

culture

alone

will

and

save

races

in

have

speaking

civilization.

and

not

of

a

The

preserve

a

single

characteristic

“human

salvation

culture

and

race”.

and

in

Nordic

common.

man

preservation

of

is

…

the

civilization…

4 RM per day, white-collar employees Similarly,

“Germanics”

included

the

study

of

language

and

literature

barely 3.50 RM, unskilled workers not with

the

aim

of

proving

the

superiority

of

Germans

as

a

“culture-

even 2 RM per head for their families. producing”

race

as

opposed

to

“culture-destroying”

races

such

as

Jews.

(a) Illustrate these gures with a What

this

spirit,

or

meant

was

the

rejection

of

any

works

considered

hostile

in

diagram. According to conservative message,

to

National

Socialist

ideology

and

the

promotion

of

estimates, there are 300 000 mentally works

glorifying

nationalism,

militarism,

sacrice

for

the

Nazi

cause

and

ill, epileptics etc. in care. (b) How much devotion

to

Adolf

Hitler,

the

Übervater

(Supreme

Father).

do these people cost to keep in total, at

The

regime

made

special

provision

for

the

education

of

future

leaders.

a cost of 4 RM per head? (c) How many

Adolf-Hitler-Schulen

reinforced

the

values

of

physical

exercise,

race

purity

marriage loans at 1000 RM each…

and

obedience

to

the

Führer

in

selected

cadets.

The

Nationalpolitische

could be granted from this money?

Erziehungsanstalten

B

(the

Napolas,

or

National

Political

Training

Institutes)

A Sturmkampieger on take-o focused

on

military

discipline

and

duty

to

the

leader,

the

party,

and

the

carries 12 dozen bombs, each nation,

while

the

Ordensburgen

(Order

Castles)

were

reserved

for

the

future

weighing 10 kilos. The aircraft makes ruling

elite

who

undertook

a

four-year

course

studying

racial

science,

for Warsaw, the centre of international athletics,

and

political

and

military

instruction

and

indoctrination.

Many

Jewry. It bombs the town. On take-o students

in

this

last

category

were

selected

from

the

already

selective

Adolf

with all the bombs on board and a fuel Hitler

schools

and

Napolas,

which

chose

potential

recruits

from

Hitler

tank containing 1500 kilos of fuel, the Youth

following

a

check

on

their

racial

background

and

Aryan

appearance.

aircraft weighed about 8 tons. When

it returns from the crusade there are

Youth groups

still 230 kilos of fuel left. What is the Outside

the

formal

institutions

of

education,

the

regime

attempted

weight of the aircraft when empty? to

1

encourage

Thomas Mann claimed Nazi education

establishing

had ’sole reference, often enough with

capable

implication of violence, to the xed

enunciated

idea of national pre-eminence and

as

warlike preparedness’. Discuss how

new

this is shown in the above examples.

of

the

of

youth

in

late

type

of

man

degeneracy

to

of

and

groups.

creating

greyhound,

reference

2

conformity

Schools

Hitler’s

1938

–

tough

so

that

our

apply

techniques

themselves

declared

a

German

as

leather,

our

day”.

people

Absent

intellectualism

or

goal

for

youth

and

is

from

academic

were

“slim

as

not

and

by

description

excellence.

as

slender,

steel

the

by

considered

youth,

Krupp

ruined

the

indoctrination

German

hard

not

of

swift

…

a

symptoms

was

Such

any

qualities

were

Compare and contrast the educational

not

prioritized

by

a

regime

whose

leadership

was

deeply

suspicious

aims (social, political and economic)

of

academic

achievement.

“I

will

have

no

intellectual

training.

of authoritarian and democratic

Knowledge

is

ruin

to

my

young

men”,

asserted

Hitler,

who

equated

political systems.

such

intellectualism

intellectuals

216

had

with

inicted

the

on

cultural

decadence

Germany

in

the

which

Weimar

he

claimed

years.

C H A P T E R

Youth

were

movements

exceedingly

organization

part,

of

this

formed

youth

members

by

the

Hitler

up

two

spirit

and

set

of

girls.

Bund

the

movement.

1935

of

the

expected

of

the

to

but

and

join.

boys

Knopp

been

so

hiking

in

the

home

all

regime,

the

is

to

a

a

“bed

shouting

as

in

like

widely

despite

were

●

the

feeling

of

music,

air

…

in

camp

to

to

the

the

(1933),

the

for

whose

with

members

the

into

60

per

Germans

were

membership

the

for

boys

for

existing

signed

for

000

age

range

10–14-year-old

Jungmädelbund /JM

compulsory.

history

being

had

for

at

boys,

rallies,

sections;

system:

community

military

girls,

marriage

early

novelty,

and

of

special”.

and

that,

the

school

young

camping

for

for

lamented

that

the

something

preparation

fact

of

promote

catered

naval

1934

of

the

compared

in

in

Youth)

young

became

of

year

approximately

all

attendance

of

favour

life,

their

activities:

and

science

is

for

German

variety

report

Not

the

to

in

party

revise

into

the

of

…

control

of

were

in

from

the

the

parental

young

people

–

Diktat

of

the

life

and

of

the

at

HJ/

reduced

offspring

children

by

maximize

members

youth

or

the

of

young,

to

the

but

the

over

perpetually

reminiscences

in

“evils”

of

their

by

organizations

the

control

that

and

attendance

became

became

barking

and

sergeant-majors”.

seduced

stranglehold

pride

found

order

their

and

parents

parental

accounts

regulations,

youth

school

religion,

monopolize

experienced

German

and

parents

Prussian

nature

youth

them

supposed

●

as

Retrospective

the

all

to

between

diminished,

service”

cases,

pint-sized

regime’s

liberate

restore

time

activities

breakfast

recruited

●

spare

and

comradeship

critical.

by

a

of

P O l I C I E S

youth

Maidens)

had

N A Z I

small

50–55

young

banning

Hitler

and

in

the

same

movements

before

Nazi

relatively

organizations,

BDM

the

That

the

1936

membership

SOPADE

seat

sought

parental

the

and

domestic

the

many

indoctrination.

vary

HJ

one,

O F

movements

the

German

instructed

expand

sport,

contemptuous

NSDAP

from

A

back

and

“strangers,

to

and

the

specialized

“Youth

meetings

weakened

The

via

accounted

were

and

(HJ/Hitler

of

many

December

political

Germany’s

was

R E S U lT S

marvellous”.

Increasingly,

BDM

seduced

to

of

A N D

approximately

youth

Jungvolk /DJ

“Never

access

uniform,

take

that

1

to

1939

expeditions,

childbearing.

drill,

on

made

for

Concordat

movement

Deutsches

…

gave

tness

Catholic

the

or

1933

only

Hitlerjugend

absorption

and

March

provided

physical

and

(the

In

courted

training

by

A I M S

chancellor.

educate

establishment

Originally

were

was

(BDM/League

Schoolteachers

declared,

Membership

and

youth

efforts

respectively).

As

the

Germans

organization.

14–18

girls

Nazi

young

and

the

from

guaranteed

Church)

cent

their

before

accounting

to

T H E

Churches

1920s

became

Mädel

(aside

to

Germany

early

Socialism:

Catholic

Nazi

the

Hitler

Deutscher

was

in

organizations

movements

autonomy

afliations

movement,

Accompanying

youth

By

in

time

National

the

with

popular

4 . 3 :

that

some

to

join

majority

in

theory

democracy,

wean

them

opportunities

youth

back

others

the

of

fondly

highly

movement,

young

promised

Marxism

for

organizations

looking

movements,

willing

great

–

the

of

to

and

Germans

to:

the

Jews

honour

1919.

217

4

A U H TO R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

However,

in

reality,

organization

what,

according

healthier,

Women and minorities

Women cannot be considered a minority

for the purposes of answering Paper

2 questions on the impact of National

Socialist policies. Minorities cover

groups ranging from religious minorities

(excluding the mainstream Protestant/

Evangelical and Catholic denominations),

the so-called “asocials” dened by

Jeremy Noakes as those considered

“socially inecient and those whose

behaviour oended against the social

norms of the ‘national community’” and

the “biological outsiders” – regarded as a

threat because of their race or a hereditary

defect. These minorities were what the

regime considered as outcasts in the

that

they

were

stultied

to

Sax

imprisoned

creative

and

Kuntz,

in

thought,

“were

a

huge

bureaucratic

producing

duller

and

a

generation

stupider,

of

though

individuals”.

Th pct of pocs o wo

Hitler’s

the

life

view

attempt

to

the

mutually

task

was

to

make

of

the

For

the

her

husband,

the

man’s

to

and

devote

between

of

Weimar

family,

world,

which

powers

male

and

partnership

in

the

Cleansed

the

he

their

“Man

when

have

is

often

referred

participation

Kitchen,

second-class

era,

which

honour

the

the

female,

state

Church).

and

they

woman

see

that

ordained”.

citizens,

In

each

The

but

to

of

“world

of

children,

of

service

the

“denigrated”

a

her

is

a

his

public

performs

them

attempted

corruption.

world

…

complemented

struggle,

his

The

speeches,

at

…

women’s

smaller

community”.

as

German

rescue

and

it

to

intention

moral

house”,

state,

the

to

through

woman

and

“the

of

according

of

had

women

in

1934

must

democratic-liberal-international

her

service

limit

other

consisted

to

to

Nazi

declared:

each

into

and

–

the

Providence

the

although

her

his

and

in

(Children,

rally,

women

dignity

regime,

women

respect

paths

the

women

Kirche”

Nature

false

destroy

of

subjugate

Küche,

value

“the

role

Nuremberg

movement”

to

the

which

not

from

to

“Kinder,

annual

the

of

readiness

relationship

was

that

of

a

nation.

Volksgemeinschaft – the National Socialist of

immorality

that

Nazis

argued

pervaded

the

Weimar

years,

conception of the racial community. Hitler

as

claimed

mothers,

would

lowest

the

East”,

birth

the

ensure

Indeed,

at

that

prospect

in

was

went

enshrined

for

in

shared

Hitler

of

what

policies

sense

on

the

critics

supremacy,

a

of

legal

with

by

in

of

rejection

of

of

claimed

claims

the

such

be

not

and

the

of

the

of

women

children

birth

and

Slavs

the

anxious

from

decline

in

the

the

state:

in

which

no

ofcial

and

“child-rich”…

for

in

came

families.

females

access

to

peculiar

the

who

rates.

Austria,

homosexual,

groups,

a

of

Nazi

or

easy

was

to

to

hordes

liberties

and

of

expansion

produce

Churches

misgivings

to

lifestyles,

to

role

declining

exception

childless

designed

bearer

of

reversing

noted,

abortion

Nazi

the

age

the

of

single,

the

traditional

fecund

Constitution,

have

despite

and

an

plurality

being

the

committed

Burleigh

to

Weimar

in

necessity

traditionalists,

capitalized

implement

male

by

As

example,

the

was,

the

tolerance

the

unit

future”

“swamped

attached

in

renew

ideology

pro-natalist

Anti-feminism,

to

family

rate

an

words,

Weimar

state-driven

(including,

birth

obvious.

[were]

was

the

being

Noakes’s

rate

of

For

of

task

“national

Europe.

stigmas

was

basis

the

Germany’s

in

Out

his

contraception)

to

DNVP

with

reactionary

the

Nazis.

before

his

plans

policy

It

1933.

to

based

on

contrary.

Pro-natalist policies

Pro-natalist

were

incentive,

loans,

(policies

through

monetary

introduced

in

of

Unemployment.

of

1000

amount

218

policies

pursued

be

rewards

to

encourage

be

of

were

1933

Married

repaid

to

mixture

June

Reichsmarks,

to

a

as

offered

Section

couples

repaid

reduced

by

a

growth

incentives

in

5

would

at

1

per

quarter

the

of

in

and

form

the

cent

of

Law

receive

for

the

birth

rate)

disincentives.

a

per

every

an

low-interest

for

the

marriage

month,

child

As

Reduction

loan

with

the

produced

C H A P T E R

(provided

the

it

was

woman

males.

and

An

1937

received

increase

third

to

there

affect

the

especially

advantage

with

of

home

help

household

in

in

to

an

the

woman

in

the

of

failure

the

to

go

was

open

all

N A Z I

P O l I C I E S

that

1933

marriages

in

rate

O F

for

between

of

800

fees

and

such

National

that

success

or

1932

did

(the

not

Socialist

us

the

of

…

The

corresponds

fares

place

to

her

or

and

destiny

Adolf

natural

larger

centres,

on

Emilie

Organization,

1936:

depends

that

payments,

courses

As

in

couples

married

advice

Women’s

the

two

the

or

for

clinics,

nation

or

little

members

married

support)

future”

carry

the

one

people

homes,

third

did

loan”.

for

birth

SS

outweigh

single

of

policy

multiply.

the

(child

birth

with

motherhood.

mothers

ruin

of

the

have

railway

as

and

give

to

reductions

recuperation

who

and

“would

for

in

housing

families,

forth

allowance

facilities

the

public

preferred

taxation

school

Reich

loan

birth

increase

remainder

motherhood

Third

R E S U lT S

loan

cent

516

the

nuclear

more

childrearing,

that

vocation

short-lived

modest

of

recognition

and

the

a

per

from

commensurate

family

in

of

A N D

positions

such

42

although

couples

of

“Mothers

leaving

1939,

income-tax

of

condition

–

increased

having

postnatal

ofcial

growing

a

rates

provision

hands

towards

of

reduced

article

a

out,

higher

management,

is

their

of

their

included

provision,

her

There

by

A I M S

noted:

towards

children),

the

Müller-Zadow,

wrote

drift

T H E

received

1934,

appreciable

absence

cancellation

benets,

and

an

A

By

rates

by

Burleigh

expense

(and

without

families

200

pointed

incentives

maternity

couples

Marriage

the

the

the

children

couples

000

distinguished

since

child).

employment

marriages).

740

secular

commentators

children,

Further

all

was

children,

pure

up

700

of

signicantly.

fourth

As

give

loans.

period)

Although

to

racially

to

estimated

(a

such

pre-Nazi

a

had

4 . 3 :

of

their

on

Hitler

and

people

their

attitude

assigns

divine

destiny.

▲

Limits

are

being

set

for

her,

which

earlier

she

had

frequently

violated

in

A recipient of the Mother ’s Cross, Berlin 1942.

a Note the older children in the uniform of the

barren

desire

to

adopt

masculine

traits

…

due

respect

is

now

being

offered

to Hitlerjugend and the BDM.

her

vocation

rich

In

May

as

emotions

and

1939

the

women

who

had

for

–

four

as

congenital

attitudes

that

mother

long

given

as

birth

by

the

in

strengths

to

the

which

the

reliable

French

to

can

children,

were

and

The

not

silver

of

should

for

Aryan

classed

Council

award:

six

and

blood,

as

gold

her

from

in

their

reminiscent

Natality

for

bronze

free

“ asocial”

was

for

develop

laws.

Cross”

programme

Superior

and

eternal

“Mother’s

children

Party.

she

according

eight

and

politically

by

people,

introduced

parent

behaviour

implemented

the

spiritual

regime

disease,

or

of

since

of

1920.

asocia

Anyone regarded by the regime as

outside the “national community”:

habitual criminals, tramps and beggars Disincentives,

in

the

sense

of

denying

women

control

over

their

own

with no xed abode, alcoholics, bodies

in

terms

of

reproduction,

took

the

form

of

the

illegalization

of

prostitutes, homosexuals, and juvenile abortion

and

the

closing

down

of

birth

control

centres

and

access

to

delinquents, as well as the “workshy” contraceptive

devices.

Breaches

of

these

regulations

resulted

in

convictions.

(those unwilling to commit themselves

to labour in the service of the Reich) and

Women in the workplace and the public sphere religious groups that refused to accept

Laws

and

initially

restricted

employment

pronouncements

workplace

were

the

to

return

available

for

in

the

and

number

civil

service

propaganda

made

the

the

partly

“idyllic

to

males.

females

after

aimed

full

destiny”

unemployed

of

of

By

the

at

Nazi

age

higher

of

35.

and

females

goals

partly

though,

education

the

Nazi doctrine.

Nazi

discouraging

ideological

women

1937,

in

to

in

the

concerning

make

jobs

appearance

of

219

4

A U H TO R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

labour

rapid

and

shortages

recovery,

accepted

…

almost

whereas

The

to

higher

in

the

give

up

and

by

to

the

role

and

that

female

Women’s

female

role

in

(RMD),

regime

articulation

of

women,

very

deprived

their

them

to

of

numbers

the

be

since

in

home,

attitudes

did

the

to

the

end

excluded

not

the

professionals,

of

are

them

ruled

change

in

World

only

relation

acceptance,

Second

the

from

believed

they

pragmatic

and

marriage

because

of

he

since

for

access

Until

women

was

necessity:

qualied

especially.

1930s

stance

observed:

outside

permitted

service,

there

economic

women’s

objectively,

system

to

that

birth

the

(NSF)

to

As

the

the

and

actively

“master

control,

Women’s

given

War,

race”

them,

their

Although

values

Enterprise

Reich

and

help

in

the

Party

the

(DFW),

Mothers’

policies

the

among

of

Service

the

formation

male-

and

commented:

that

underpaid

took

the

decisions

Koonz

exploited

secondary.

Nazi-approved

German

than

nally

was

promote

policies.

and

who

now

insist

jury

later

funnel

rather

state

children,

the

as

to

belonging

Nazi

to

Geary

1939.

Similarly,

was

As

aided

ideological

essential.

such

such

families

Socialist

women,

political

was

in

by

increasing

reason

Womanhood

role

in

to

its

employment

million

1933,

or

ground

paid

professions

or

of

was

the

Socialist

dominated

For

of

employment.

some

7.14

continued

organizations

their

in

National

status

to

programmes

compromised

in

dropped.

judiciary

demands

rearmament

give

were

required

logically

population,

National

the

the

to

wives

teaching

labour

established

was

Hitler

While

economic

had

for

as

regime

female

risen

regime

and

in

of

restricted

the

“think

emotion”.

the

had

work

however,

to

the

women

requirement

participation

unable

still

million

gure

medical

regime,

economy

that

necessity

education,

economy

the

purity

5

the

earlier

loans

the

ideological

1933

in

meant

sons

opened

denied

them

and

as

the

option

them

wage

husbands

of

access

collaboration

to

workers,

to

the

political

in

status,

indoctrinated

front.

Th pct of pocs o ots

For

Nazis,

norms

as

“Social

one

asocials

dened

Outcasts

used

inclusion

by

in

in

the

the

were

by

the

Gemeinschaftfremde

the

1940.

–

exhibited

according

According

“protect”

the

Third

to

Reich”,

to

to

a

draft

healthy

the

label

conform

it

aliens”–

of

primary

community

desired

in

Alien

aim

of

from

in

of

Law”

such

a

exible

were

who

this

social

essay

undeserving

groups

those

his

was

were

deciency

“Community

the

asocial

felt

asocial

degree

to

indicated

term

those

These

unusual

state,

not

Noakes

“community

“an

the

racially

did

As

Volksgemeinschaft.

of

character”

who

regime.

government

as

state

those

the

of

classied

the

eyes

mind

or

presented

legislation

in

was

to

elements.

Beggars and the homeless

Early

targets

September

the

state,

them

for

to

the

beggars

regime,

Classied

were

undertake

could

these

into

and

be

board.

groups

were

“orderly”

registered

compulsory

accommodation

whereabouts

220

of

1933.

and

work

Fixed

monitored.

In

and

issued

on

the

routes

the

rounded

with

permits

state’s

were

case

up

“disorderly”

of

orders

from

categories

that

in

exchange

introduced

the

by

required

so

homeless,

that

their

detention

in

C H A P T E R

camps

such

fearful

that

as

Dachau

“he

(the

who

rejects

all

state

which

stressed

were

10

arrested

000

of

integration

and

the

and

sterilization

homeless)

as

is

hated

community

many

homeless

in

were

were

4 . 3 :

were

danger

T H E

imposed

of

compulsion”

detained

in

A N D

on

becoming

integration),

imprisoned,

A I M S

(and

whom

few

By

freedom

and

Buchenwald.

of

many.

a

thus

beggars

R E S U lT S

an

N A Z I

P O l I C I E S

1938,

fanatic

irritant

homeless

An

O F

to

a

people

estimated

survived.

Homosexuals

Homosexuals

Central

linking

the

were

Ofce

of

for

these

treatment

health”

as

Paragraph

activity”

German

of

and

imposed.

of

increasing

There

1937,

are

the

has

Identication

records

of

dot

and

the

the

world

in

were

them

100

a

by

of

the

were

175

subject

at

the

shown

lowest

…

A

in

regime,

previously

with

as

the

well

as

but

to

by

by

is

prison

and

A

my

in

Of

the

(later

by

race

according

5000

and

wear

the

SS

person

detentions

to

of

has

good

produced

replaced

concentration

of

...

war,

Survivors

and

children

fourth

Forced

sexual

life

these,

every

of

business,

the

people

grave

homosexuals

the

ofcers,

many

Between

believed.

uniform

is

Gestapo

outbreak

treatment.

towards

do

place

with

the

the

SS

signify

1939.

increased.

it

I

domination.

ticket

the

to

homosexuals:

take

people

investigated

in

those

activities”

what

which

world

After

level

of

the

regime

speech

view:

“criminals”

harsh

a

individual,

camps

their

that

“indecent

elements

than

the

view

national

Weimar

under

towards

homosexuals

state.

to

the

one-way

imprisoned,

on

in

things

power

were

by

“indecent

policy

the

and

a

000

third

brutality

as

has

concentration

numbers

they

power

of

and

“offenders”.

take

of

brutal

The

the

condemnation

1935

chief,

all

world

children

convicted

particular

regarded

signify

Stümke,

who

affair

registration

homosexuals

triangle),

of

few

and

homosexuals

000

for

SS

Nazi

However,

private

nation,

too

Hans-Georg

15

the

approximately

successfully

of

not

the

behind

for

the

but,

Reich

prejudice.

made

both

Nazis

more

in

denition

policy

conservative

the

much

imprisonment

matter.

of

revised

homosexuals

candidature

which

the

Himmler,

private

are

of

was

reasoning

those

creation

the

illustrated

which

moral

many

by

Abortion.

homophobic

predated

The

by

and

“population

Code,

illegal,

penalties

175

broadening

his

purely

sphere

to

suffered

of

Socialist

regime.

a

coordinated

department

Criminal

males

not

move

one

National

Nazi

a

Homosexuality

product

abortion)

was

of

a

Reich

adult

the

terms

February

explained

the

the

in

of

under

was

any

Paragraph

intention

death

areas

(and

society

homosexuals

a

as

between

homosexuality

Combat

both

much

government

In

two

of

175

persecuted

the

by

the

a

camps

guards,

camp

black

pink

spoke

who

hierarchy.

Jehovah’s Witnesses

Nazis

targeted

this

religious

objection

to

or

compulsory

to

join

military

courts”,

according

and

Gestapo

for

the

the

“the

destruction

people

and

Burleigh,

of

of

shall

group

National

accused

establishment

chosen

to

service

all

the

be

them

because

their

Socialist

using

existing

of

them

conscientious

use

as

religion

forms

Kingdom

the

their

to

the

organizations.

regarded

of

of

refusal

of

state

Jehovah,

political

and

greeting

“special

“lower-class

for

in

Hitler

Nazi

madmen”

purposes

governments

which

the

Jews

–

and

as

the

rulers”.

221

4

A U H TO R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

The

group

served

was

time

in

banned

in

concentration

or

execution

bugs”

as

the

triangles

(red),

groups

the

SS

from

obstinate

group

termed

outspoken

to

whom

them,

(green),

and

noted

group

not

in

were

whose

of

Nazi

The

a

pacism

a

views

to

meant

in

to

State

camps

by

Fraenkel,

that,

in

“none

no

that

it

or

state,

could

its

not

violet

politicals

1941,

of

the

fashion

illegal

than

While

public

be

“Bible-

the

compromises”.

Nazi

up

conditions

(pink),

uncompromising

the

ended

poor

students”,

the

Ernst

allows

threat

due

community

2000

homosexuals

Dual

more

the

“Bible

out

from

of

regime;

either

(black).

work

third

the

These

marked

in

a

of

died,

them

asocials

his

numerically

rejection

1200

objection.

Socialism

…

around

lifetime

distinguish

National

was

of

and

the

conscientious

exile

rejects

1933,

during

camps,

wore

criminals

writing

this

for

they

in

custody

and

tolerated.

“Biological outsiders”

Even

before

and

Roma)

and

Prussia

these

in

Nazi

with

were

1933;

by

1945

them

to

racial

status.

great

be

a

included

Racial

threat

“experts”

“pure”

a

would

Nazi

Struggle

War

one

a

the

meant

point,

virtual

as

an

order

of

both

says,

National

as

for

the

and

of

to

The

in

of

of

the

pure

Europe

and

Roma

the

–

gypsies

to

and

Dr

gypsy

as

in

in

Biological

was

were

camps

Ritter,

Decree

an

and

for

Second

at

Nazi

has

population

of

At

establishing

living

of

World

control.

of

to

gypsy.

museum,

December

what

the

attempt

part

Nazi

a

where

“continual

Robert

camps

victims

1935.

and

the

the

under

special

Roma

in

of

inferior

eyes,

were

who

marked

but

murdered

“Gypsy

to

almost

became

they

possibility

curiosity”,

were

Sinti

the

of

Nazi

Mischlinge

during

brought

considered

transferred

solve

into

allowed

and

Hygiene

Himmler’s

1938

Germany

doubly

September

gypsy.

of

in

in

determine

according

being

ethnic

of

prevention

issuing

eastern

Sinti

of

to

monitoring

lifestyle

abode)

Sinti

Bavaria

were

incarceration

the

efciently

million

to

their

and

gypsies

population,

Racial

part

in

constitute,

Laws

December

transfer

those

attempt

by

xed

not

for

or

000

nomadic

no

did

Centre

gypsies

form

Holocaust

Socialist

(of

Jewish

pending

Plague

a

the

30

communities

Himmler

half

their

population”,

“pure”

a

of

as

correctly,

communities

Nuremberg

with

more

and

that

Mischling

swathes

“as

Many

the

a

The

gypsies

affairs.

implemented

elsewhere.

the

dealt

Gypsy

large

of

work”,

gypsy

Ritter

experimentation,

described

was

be

to

in

more

departments

photographing,

vagrants

Research

numbers

reservation

Burleigh

as

half-breed

on

the

larger

was

the

population

occupation

or,

and

this

against

categorize

The

of

to

5000.

pollution

who

“made

“expert”

number

such

(or,

police

approximately

just

examined

threat

be

procreation

the

from

gypsies

1920s,

ngerprinting,

were

regime,

racial

and

the

“workshy”

the

Studies

gypsy

considered

they

of

regarded

In

were

the

as

legislation

Population

a

under

While

in

There

there

classed

in

many

active

communities.

disadvantaged

as

rule,

suspicion.

1942

Auschwitz

medical

been

Europe

in

a

Question”.

The mentally and physically handicapped

Eugenics,

selective

there

“the

the

with

to

and

leader

the

the

of

state

to

possibility

not

unique

Just

complete

of

contribute

consumers

222

in

was

enthusiasm.

perfect

Schirach,

unable

belief

breeding,

as

the

human

Hitler

such

resources

animal”,

aim

that

improving

Hitler’s

emphasis

Youth

an

of

to

in

should

could

of

in

1938,

the

racial

Germany,

the

the

it

be

but

regime

words

was

considered

otherwise

be

through

was

was

of

policy

stock

it

to

pursued

produce

Baldur

that

without

better

von

those

used.

value

–

C H A P T E R

Programmes

defects”,

Aryan

race.

National

even

in

be

This

the

grounds

draft

asocial

The

law

offspring

serious

questionable

was

so

vague

exercised

for

poor

320

Sterilization,

those

the

incurable

to

000

and

000

deaths

before

1941

of

the

in

concentration

protests

may

categories

through

the

of

of

the

a

one

on

camps

were

state

while

July

the

their

from

sick

Huntington’s

were

or

the

as

actually

the

deemed

state

grounds

hereditary

denition

to

membership

of

those

a

Those

disabilities

and

carried

have

of,

the

out

considered

include

termed

In

the

was

Sonderbehandlung

in

address

ofcially

Ofcial

over

of

the

halted

halting

continued

outcasts”

Slavs,

in

from

the

resulting

after

“biological

Reich

life”,

physical)

1939

murders

Jews,

the

suffering

and

Church.

but

rid

be

began,

Berlin)

the

euthanasia

to

policy.

(named

4,

to

“worthless

(mental

children

and

–

believed

euthanasia

to

scheme

community”

public

stopped

euphemistically

on

alcoholism”

those

for,

1945

Tiergartenstrasse

of

as

Hereditarily

suffering

feeblemindedness

programme

expanded

–

feeblemindedness,

chronic

punish

part

the

adults

the

the

countries

early

of

those

epilepsy,

foregoing

and

healthy

to

sterilizations.

1920s.

T-4

from

have

of

to

P O l I C I E S

government

As

sterilization

and

N A Z I

community”.

support

1934

only

of

and

the

case

000

the

other

state

unrestrainedly

hereditary

used

their

the

murders

in

these

after

in

was

responsible:

killings

the

be

350

victims

inferiors

on

of

in

O F

“hereditary

unique

Prevention

“congenital

resource-consuming

become

organization

in

“burden

eugenists

state-sanctioned

72

a

as

some

Between

and

however,

of

such

not

Prussian

R E S U lT S

genetically

sterilization.

the

A N D

eliminate

a

was

compulsory

of

burden

could

the

for

deformities

judgment

considered

words

were

and

it

example.

between

of

–

that

Law

justied

a

Whether

was

the

of

propounded

voluntary

depression,

physical

sterilization.

1932,

A I M S

would

hygiene”

reproducing

are

manic

in

T H E

building

were

numbers

conditions

schizophrenia,

the

“racial

for

which

are

euthanasia

to

theories

introduced

“countless

listed

to

Germany

ailments

and

KPD,

Such

Offspring,

that

and

obstacle

legislation

Nazis

hereditary

chorea,

an

approach

pre-Hitler

Diseased

for

sterilization

to

Socialists.

produced

1933

of

held

4 . 3 :

Sinti

and

and

(special

Roma,

treatment).

The Jewish population

When

it

is

examining

the

treatment

occupied

of

territories

attention

only

the

from

tragic

the

Jewish

after

the

historians

Gemeinschaftsfremde

impact

National

population

outbreak

and

but

of

the

of

public.

actual

in

Germany

war)

that

Jews

dangers

to

Socialism

has

were

the

on

minorities,

(and

the

attracted

held

to

be

most

not

Volksgemeinschaft

and

▲

The caption on this poster reads, “This person

suering from hereditary defects costs the

its

future.

community 60 000 Reichsmarks during his

Hitler

did

not

invent

phenomenon.

the

“Russia

anti-Semitic

was

present

Weimar

in

era

decadence”

traditional

Germany

the

saw

time

German

to

dominate

promote

Bolshevism

by

the

from

the

as

a

and

were

nor

land

as

the

of

late

product

Claims

the

it

of

a

century

formed

nationalists

to

Issued by the Department (Oce) of Racial policy”.

the

undermine

extended

the

seeking

lifetime. Fellow citizens, this is your money too.

of

“moral

capitalism

of

city

“Judophobia”

conspiracy

part

the

during

and

conspiracy

German

was

Yet

and

decay”

Jewish

the

Paris

remarked.

international

but

German

exclusively

pogrom;

19th

that

illogical,

an

“cultural

manipulate

conservative

was

Johnson

supposed

values.

attempts

outpourings

was

intelligentsia,”

many

of

anti-Semitism,

to

as

well

as

anti-Semitic

a

scapegoat

for

223

4

A U H TO R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

Germany’s

evident

in

post-war

the

maintained

a

population,

which

1

per

cent

of

ills.

ideology

consistent

the

“syphilis

National

policy

numbered

total

Institutionalized

This

of

of

of

anti-Semitism”

Socialism,

hostility

around

which,

towards

half

a

was

from

particularly

the

Germany’s

million

in

1933

–

beginning,

Jewish

less

than

population.

and

eliminationist

anti-Semitism

characterized

the

institutionaized Nazi

state;

it

was,

in

Goldhagen’s

view,

“the

dening

feature

of

German

The programme of state-directed society

during

its

Nazi

period”.

The

state’s

anti-Semitic

programme

was

measures, propaganda, and legislation to implemented

rapidly

after

March

1933,

with

legislation

and

government

persecute the Jewish population. support

and

on

for

social

the

measures

life.

Jewish

Over

to

exclude

the

period

population

in

Jews

from

1933–1939,

relation

to

German

professional,

increasing

citizenship,

restrictions

interracial

economic,

imposed

marriage

and

eiminationist

sexual

relationships,

educational

provision,

and

ownership

of

businesses

Plan to remove the Jews from German

were

used

to

coerce

Jews

into

leaving

the

Reich

–

no

easy

task

at

a

time

society through actions that escalated

when

the

Great

Depression

resulted

in

immigration

barriers

being

raised

by

from ocially sanctioned discrimination

countries

that

had

previously

welcomed

immigrants.

designed to pressure them to leave

Germany, to the most extreme form of

Anti-Jewish measures, 1933–1945 “elimination” of the Holocaust, which aimed

●

April

1933

Boycott

of

Jewish

businesses

and

Jewish

doctors

and

at the physical extermination of the Jewish

legal

professionals.

population in Germany and Nazi-occupied

Law

for

the

Re-establishment

of

the

Civil

Service,

excluding

Jews

Europe during the Second World War.

(and

other

views

or

“undesirables”

non-Germans)

●

July

●

December

●

September

and

1934

the

July

●

August

1938

1938

Paris

and

release

for

during

Jewish

higher

the

this

students

jewellery

October

early

224

examinations.

pharmaceutical

Laws”

and

“citizens

anti-Nazi

(the

Reich

Blood

and

forbidding

of

examinations

Citizenship

German

Act

Honour)

intermarriage

German

or

kindred

and

blood”

doctors

required

to

of

young

the

name

“Israel”

and

names

qualications

following

Jewish

persons

on

add

rst

of

Jewish

doctors

practising

Kristallnacht:

Jewish

with

and

their

community

the

attacks

property.

agreement

to

murder

assassin,

pay

for

Mass

to

the

of

a

arrest

leave

German

made

the

damages

on

of

Jews,

country

occurring

forbidden

to

attend

German

schools

and

institutes

of

education

February

Jewish

and

from

Jewish

take

those

employment.

legal

German

non-Jewish

conditional

sale

“Aryanization”

●

of

Cancellation

a

to

or

“pogrom”

Compulsory

●

Jews

any

by

take

citizenship

Jews

banned

1938

in

synagogues

and

to

to

Nuremberg

Jewish

Male

socialists

government

Protection

German

on

lawyers

November

their

of

“Sarah”

diplomat

“The

the

as

forbidden

between

Ban

September

Jewish

●

Jews

1938

females

●

for

from

permitted

Jews

1935

contact

●

not

1934

Law

depriving

sexual

Jews

such

of

1939

to

the

1939

affairs,

1940,

of

Jewish

German

Jews

businesses,

part

of

a

process

of

the

business

forced

to

surrender

all

items

of

gold,

silver,

and

state

Heinrich

followed

West

Himmler

by

Prussia.

the

and

SS

expulsion

Relocated

to

given

of

responsibility

Jews

from

for

Vienna

German-occupied

and,

Poland

by

C H A P T E R

●

August

and

●

the

July

1941

Jewish

●

1940

methods

January

at

the

September

camps

hugely

Start

as

of

of

Jews

R E S U lT S

from

O F

N A Z I

P O l I C I E S

Germany

a

“Final

Solution

to

the

Other

were

of

these

and

to

camps,

The

gypsies

wear

a

yellow

camps

the

and

“Star

the

of

start

extermination

other

executions

with

Himmler

such

tasked

of

with

of

minorities

6

David”

of

experiments

Jews

drawn

up

the

prisoners

in

Jews

through

1940

Treblinka,

of

in

but

process

the

identied

war

now

by

the

Chelmno,

existence

alone,

of

labour”

“undesirable”

gruesome

resulted

groups

Poland

Soviet

deemed

unworthy

million

or

in

“destruction

Maidanek,

“undesirables”

–

Jews

established

those

as

of

gypsies,

for

(originally

considered

elimination

political

for

“processing”

humans

murder

to

masse

together

over

for

Sobibor,

physical

mass

Auschwitz

expanded

and

en

plans

Jews,

given

such

required

Jews

of

and

for

millions

A N D

abandoned

concentration

annihilation

the

plans

A I M S

Conference

1942

regime).

to

Detailed

1942

“asocials”

Belzec

of

murder

1942

●

Nazi

transporting

Madagascar

Jews

Jews

Wannsee

February

in

1941

of

to

●

and

of

to

Beginning

Transporting

●

idea

East

T H E

Question”

September

on

The

occupied

4 . 3 :

of

by

the

the

Nazis.

extermination

as

as

well

as

“social

–

Slavs,

outcasts”

enemies.

Th Hoocust, 1941–1945

Institutionalized

attempted

Nazi

For

genocide

control

Jews

from

and

the

Hitler,

The

anti-Semitism

as

social

idealist,

the

were

God-given

lacking

National

“the

twin

dangerous

for

fulminated

Should

of

this

today

the

standing

While

only

his

after

onslaught

later

to

the

attitude

of

which

existing

some

the

to

is

the

of

aid

in

view,

of

be

Jewish

of

his

of

a

Jew

a

in

the

areas

under

elimination

and

its

…

an

Hoocaust

The systematic, state-sanctioned

of

territories.

persecution and murder of 6 million Jews

by the Nazi regime and its collaborators.

the

materialist

–

negation

rather

anarchic,

I

and

of

the

than

egoistic

an

and

spirit

hostility

creed,

regime

the

of

the

the

seen

as

Hitler

was

Germany

have

to

to

19th

…

people

I

of

believe

creator ,

the

extreme,

rid

rally

the

by

using

community

was

(and

extent

Germans

century.

it

an

Germany

argued

in

Lord.

witnessed

cohesion”,

Jewish

later

the

Almighty

handiwork

attempt

the

the

of

programmes

an

over

mankind

pre-1933

that

“negative

towards

since

of

will

Historians

was

Marxism

were

Mein Kampf,

triumph

wreath

with

and

In

and

Jews

declared:

defending

Jews.

and

world.

population

the

Jews

population

the

funeral

am

capitalism

Jewry”

Marxist

the

policies

of

nation

for

Causes:

predatory

indeed,

Jew

Europe)

and

the

the

allegedly

Holocaust)

the

capacities

basis

systematic

Sacred

accordance

the

through

of

was

Judaism,

will

scapegoating

of

…

a

the

culture”.

and,

discriminatory

suspicion

in

was

(the

“international

establishment

Socialism

sectors

–

the

against

Nazi-occupied

National

of

Crown

conduct

guard

of

world

peril

with

his

my

the

properties

nation

Jew,

world,

out

life

counterpart

“destroyer

the

Jewry

economic

culture-creating

Socialist

Germany

territories:

pointed

offspring”

about

that

and

malecent

individualistic

In

European

occupied

Burleigh

Aryan’s

Aryan’s

of

the

in

to

the

shown

by

Portraying

225

4

A U H TO R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S

the

to

struggle

appeal

interests

of

the

The

the

the

was

so

to

puts

war

Kampf

the

to

forward

years,

occupied

the

the

out

large

Jewish

the

fact

of

some

that

struggle

and

such

proportional

of

historians

relentlessly

a

the

allowed

Hitler

materialistic

small

terms)

case

that

a

of

of

lands,

numbers

noting

a

in

Jewish

business,

politics,

who

under

of

in

the

in

proposed

or

“functionalist”

of

the

initiatives

attempted

their

emphasized

aim

references

elements

treatment

local

Germany

consistent

frequent

“structuralist”

savage

product

European

Hitler’s

“undesirable”

the

the

of

followed

population,

destruction

Jewish

claimed

Nazi

what

the

was

talked

The

of

the

required

but

Measures

with

of

to

from

by

to

authority

up

new

Between

the

legislation

again

1933

In

by

Jews,

Nazi

solve

by

by

school

the

ofcials

the

simply

in

problem

liquidating

were

the

(large

population

The

had

of

outbreak

victories

Jewish

half

of

debated

the

–

to

with

in

to

only

in

defeat

the

sense,

of

of

000

for

the

as

was

combined

quit

Germany.

000

brute

purchase

Jews

from

Jews

of

force,

of

Jewish

mainstream

policy

Germany’s

become

as

of

Jewish

a

destroy

A

German

gains

Emigration

relocating

6

worse,

territorial

“Jewish

for

of

to

measures

1933).

abandoned.

consequences

left,

of

when

outbreak

“eliminationist”

Europe.

and

have

leave

example).

150

the

to

deprive

1936,

Jews

to

of

not.

Jews

to

violence

on

up

matter

anti-Semitic

compulsory

300

impressive

Britain

was

the

tactics

would

of

of

who

associated

for

in

in

spirit

Kershaw,

was

rights

approximately

exclusion

than

regime’s

idea

what

tempo

to

a

German

and

Nazis

the

Führer”.

sanctions

residency,

pressure

through

eastern

the

the

be

nation

state-sponsored

estimated

(as

may

the

somewhat

the

1938,

more

altered

not

scheme

dire

this

of

the

carry

destroy

many

by

occurred

and

within

originally

social

Kristallnacht

and

million

desperate

Madagascar

the

In

war

brought

failure

small)

a

populations

1941

business

Reich,

pressure

rights

but

when

were

removed

solution

was

of

and

possible

but

000

to

physically

towards

from

and

interpret

orders

Germany

paused

November

increased.

regime

was

after

the

opportunities

legal

intensify

period

150

Aryanization

to

in

radicalization”

to

to

own

“work

Jews

aimed

Olympics,

1938,

and

the

further

concerns

the

that,

to

economic

(including

desire

“their

“cleanse”

remove

1935

another

questioned

ofcials

to

to

to

legislation

emigrated.

a

of

applying

hosted

“cumulative

one

Hitler’s

was

business/professional

Germany

war,

be

create

them”

used

1933

by

Discriminatory

with

of

be

to

of

with

interpretation

desire

citizenship

picked

process

vied

would

tendency

the

country,

them

The

hierarchy

the

a

who

understood

Jewry.

methods

debate,

that

leaders,

they

regime

what

226

Hitler

largely

eastern

European

by

life-and-death

population.

among

of

a

(in

Conversely,

the

was

Mommsen

life

envied

school

which

Volksgemeinschaft.

the

who

as

tendencies

dominant

“intentionalist”

extent

Mein

Jew”

professions.

exterminating

of

“the

xenophobic

others,

population

and

against

to

but

was

problem”.

European

In

also

no

to

virtual

reservation

British

sea

new

million

power

solution

Jews

by

had

1945.

large

longer

1940

Jewry

military

Nazis

the

island

for

Jews,

meant

to

a

the

be

that

found.

It

C H A P T E R

4 . 3 :

T H E

A I M S

A N D

R E S U lT S

O F

N A Z I

P O l I C I E S

Th xtt of uthot coto

National

of

by

rule

Socialism’s

were

any

signicant

opposition

was

ended

was

In

this

in

limiting

at

sense,

the

the

civilised

variety

with

its

as

motives,

belief

●

fear

●

disillusionment

the

the

towards

●

their

and

●

in

For

by

the

a

for

or

that

of

Gestapo

of

–

by

and

for

the

the

to

to

the

show

enemies

a

of

USSR

not

regime,

wide

of

the

Europe

submitted

to

in

in

1944

–

and

particular.

effective

Germans

the

level

numbers

of

Reich.

(a

than

defeat

been

all

years

Domestic

example,

fear

have

While

12

rather

government.

seen

Western

Germans,

“supposedly

the

regime

for

a

for

had

those

not

democratic

that

who

which,

by

the

until

victimized

“rescued”

was

Nazis

which

accepted

rejecting

there

system

and

antipathy

Left

programmes,

pride

–

the

benets

policy

status

disobedience

previous

of

material

those

physical

system

be

forces.

War

Nazis

economic

foreign

–

but

regime.

remarked),

the

national

majority

can

the

World

timing

forces,

identifying

rise

mobility

Nazi

its

themselves

people

the

with

the

and

restoring

mental,

of

possible

upward

in

to

external

Nazi

regime

Allied

of

Second

the

cases

the

the

consequences

social

pride

of

to

control”

by

Geary

aims

the

gratitude

the

result

the

including:

●

of

aim

best-educated

in

of

opposition

received

country”,

of

some

accommodated

denunciations

among

of

“authoritarian

domestic

compliance

in

hatred

hands

the

of

opposition

and

by

was

outcome

internal

not

wholeheartedly

of

the

limited

conditioned

retribution

destruction

by

Germany

at

of

reason

from

to

offer

in

employment

NSDAP

least,

Diktat

because

little

the

1939

the

seemed

offered

of

succeeded

Versailles.

their

to

had

racial,

risk

economic

political,

persecution

despair

and

humiliation.

On

28

April

Reichstag

Führer.

For

stressed

of

a

Nazis

society.

before

not

the

had

What

the

an

Nazi

of

but

after

and

in

who

–

“a

or

produced

horric

deaths

and

of

war

overt

for

in

but

which

the

what

silent

those

brought

partition

to

of

did

were

(its

who

and

been

In

was

the

a

in

April

that

such

platform

from

lay

the

the

1939

the

and

form

form

suffered

that

of

(ve

German

months

war

of

were

racial-

of

of

of

state,

internal

compliance

the

the

the

political

Such

of

practices

of

Nazi

misery

resulted

aftermath

convinced

achievements

nature

safety.

the

ght”.

basis

a

the

promotion

to

sectors

for

“enemies”

conict

the

as

any

to

to

under

(constantly

only

many

terroristic

way

for

by

nation

in

not

preparing

subsequently

Germany

with

described

this

only

through

ideological

the

delivered

Socialism

achievements

realize

Europe)

to

Hitler

appealing

not

detached

not

the

such

“merely

due

resistance.

results

that

National

resonance”

they

has

and

of

were

regime

reacted,

entered

speech

techniques

Germans

doubt

remaining

destruction

a

Haffner,

popular

themselves

seldom

ultimately

and

wide

discourse

but

of

propaganda

many

did

1933)

focus

achievements

Führer/Saviour)

conquest

instead

exile

the

the

outbreak

end

imperialist

Those

on

Kershaw

by

cult

1939,

was

in

ideology,

and

German

defeat.

227

Exam-stye questions

1

To

of

2

what

extent

democracy

When

and

inter-war

3

“The

4

main

what

“Only

the

5

“Hitler

To

6

what

In

what

9

Assess

jobbed

why

role

●

the

actions

●

fear

of

the

coming

for

to

the

of

the

are

collapse

collapse

in

Germany

in

the

democratic

external

this

the

government

rather

than

in

internal”.

statement?

wind

into

the

sails

of

of

agree

with

opposition

with

limited

what

this

statement?

this

statement?

each

the

of

to

and

the

single-party

state

in

Germany

ineffective.

success,

to

did

domestic

Hitler

issues

following

in

(after

during

the

1933)

his

rise

rise

to

honour

to

the

power?

power

of

Hitler:

Settlement

power

of

others

you

Hitler’s

leaders,

1930–1933

National

were

agree

of

Socialism

was

the

result

of

the

responsible.”

with

each

this

of

single-party

statement?

the

following

state

after

to

the

1933:

force.

unable

to

such

deal

a

of

claim

last

with

all

question

1930–1933

party

this

with

the

NSDAP

resort

with

three

and

in

areas

seek

was

an

less

desperate

reference

to

the

identied

in

alternative

the

party

if

this

type

of

possible.)

of

rst

choice

times.”

rapid

rise

in

support

for

NSDAP .

“The

and

the

education

avoid

“Between

the

of

use

you

contribution

●

Discuss

of

were

with

put

relating

do

propaganda

the

for

power.”

Weimar

which

●

you

responsible

Left.

control

than

NSDAP

political

Discuss

228

of

●

question,

12

of

extent

Examine

(If

failure

years

agree

into

Peace

maintenance

11

and

Paris

what

democracy

agree

you

both

made

the

To

10

he

do

was

ways,

the

distress

the

you

internal

●

“The

for

Depression

do

extent

promises

8

German

inter-war

do

Great

(1933–1945)

7

aws

Socialism.”

was

Discuss

the

extent

what

did

reasons

in

extent

National

To

why

constitutional

Germany?

years?

Germany

To

were

in

with

was

at

once

a

symptom

of,

and

a

solution

to,

economic

crisis.”

reference

to

the

growth

of

National

Socialism,

1923–1933.

Evauating sources

Question

With

of

reference

October

and

to

1932

the

(‘The

limitation(s)

National

origin

for

and

meaning

an

purpose

of

historian

the

of

John

Hitler

Hearteld’s

salute’),

interpreting

the

assess

reasons

photomontage

its

for

value(s)

the

rise

of

Socialism.

Analysis

This

question

purposes,

asks

you

before

answering

not

the

be

around

case

300

–

the

words

●

identify

●

give

the

it

explain

●

it

purpose

●

rise

IA

the

on

are

to

material.

research

conditions

(Paper

You

For

the

IA

source

1)

should

this

aim

would

to

write

question.

it

down

“origin”,

into

its

constituent

“purpose”,

“value(s)”

and

to:

–

his

the

for

date

source

source.

breaking

political

source

private

origins:

and

why

of

this

is

views,

academic

(publisher,

or

public

the

publication

as

an

to

which

possibly

the

National

limitations

of

audience

(overt

of

evaluation

need

meant

exam

unseen

question

will

its

In

an

means

the

primary

opportunity

place,

date

etc.

and

distribution)

historical

and

standing,

the

context

–

the

circumstances

in

produced

the

comment

the

of

was

identify

be

author/artist

was

signicance

which

an

provenance

whether

briey

in

an

question.

for

You

the

evaluate

had

would

question

“limitation(s)”.

●

this

words

parts.

to

have

it

Analysing

Key

you

will

source

Socialism

aid

to

it

was

addressed

and

its

intended

covert)

has

value

and

say

for

why

aiding

the

understanding

source

might

of

have

understanding.

Don’t:

●

simply

●

deal

describe

with

the

(usefulness)

it

had

not

●

make

●

i.e.

don’t

say

which

of

“This

did/did

the

source

source

not

relation

help

my

not

to

its

useful

utility

because

investigation.”

This

is

unless

you

can

produce

evidence

generic

generalize

comments

problems,

source’s

reliable

in

was/was

evaluation.

translation

the

content

“bias”/subjectivity/partiality

specic

●

source

values/limitations

–

information

source

claim

the

etc.,

about

unless

age/memory

you

can

show

lapse

how

of

the

this

author,

has

affected

reliability

–

claiming

whereas

for

example

secondary

sources

that

are

all

less

primary

sources

are

so.

229

SS

S K I l l S

S E C T I O N

Sample answer

The

a

photomontage

pictorial

in

Octob er

1932

memb ership

was

to

rise

of

to

in

recipient

The

as

of

source

a

KPD

a

already,

KPD

“party

and

line”

including

were

in

a

to

a

this

and

of

for

an

allow

a

the

Left.

of

of

the

parties

climate

of

for

the

was

wider

to

the

against

rather

saw

his

European

alternative

and

an

arguably

run

in

range

right

or

of

rise

than

role

to

and

promote

intended

to

anti-

link

Hitler’s

interpretation

portrayed

ultimately

as

the

an

as

KPD

This

in

to

b eing

in

Moscow-directed

a

in

line

view

rise,

provided)

sought

work

opinion

of

a

emphasizing

particular.

his

use

such

converted”.

Hitler’s

details

despite

early

the

was

b usiness

inuencing

to

b ehind

(no

the

Münzengerg,

Hearteld

as

the

artist

of

sympathetic

Willi

factors

centre

of

was

“preaching

that

of

disastrous

example

by

“contributions”

fascism.

views

and

journal

the

A-I-Z,

photomontage

Comintern

b eing

readership

limited

actual

Hitler

the

circulation,

support

the

and

It

the

in

wide

Nazi

of

claims

with

–

rise

A-I-Z

is

when

purpose

election.

line

1918)

with

Germany.

S ocialism’s

source

since

Berlin,

and

dogmatic

message

The

design,

of

communist

“engineer”

theatre-set

not

the

examining

the

interpretations

did

National

in

capitalism”

magnates

example

salutes

–

in

The

Novemb er

Business”

decaying

sense

political

as

the

memb er

elections,

rising.

slogans,

b efore

KPD

based

R eichstag

KPD

propagandizing.

variety

troubled

publishing

KPD

an

of

than

failures

himself

the

as

propagandist,

describing

communist

in

of

producing

rather

the

available

itself

so

its

“Big

(a

publication

the

industrial

political

memb er

activist

by

kick

interpretation

for

of

S ocialism,

the

Hearteld

Novemb er

that

situation

valuable

photomontage

As

the

and

“last

by

by

communist

oered

the

funds

is

communist

message

chaotic

support

Hitlerism

to

falling

National

the

the

produced

and

prior

was

ridicule

Fascism

was

newspaper

to

insure

Hearteld,

commercial

with

current

followed

by

factors.

Examiner comments

This

evaluation

signicance

the

question.

printed

in

of

and

which

describe

It

the

and

comments

provide

about

business

its

230

was

be

–

of

to

in

of

the

the

may

an

to

defeat

a

source

the

be

this

less

and

the

for

to

into

policy

exile,

and

that

like

–

not

the

neither

do

it

with

the

for

the

failings

ultimately

Hearteld

when

it

the

to

a

it

rise

or

to

simply

and

spend

tries

was

clear

utility

provided

does

it

–

covert.

i.e.

did

not

time

talking

indicate

of

of

the

historians)

strategy

consigned

himself

in

the

the

National

inuence/importance

some

the

to

circumstances

overt

on

and

relation

shows

both

Instead,

issue

the

in

temptation

and

–

understanding

and

on

focused

because

text.

provenance

source

where

purpose

are

student

of

the

comment

avoids

was

contentious

insight

a

It

of

historical

photomontage

possible

helpful

to

an

author

produced.

limitations

(still

with

the

translation

and

as

pertinent

source’s

how

which

us

understanding

and

seen

the

adherence

members

brief

helpful

support

good

identied

limitations

about

value

providing

and

of

problems

Socialism

a

can

details

source’s

has

source

what

a

photomontage

made

understanding

Values

shows

the

of

than

the

Party

April

of

on

KPD

and

1933.

its

Fur ther reading

1

Vatikiotis,

Egypt – Nasser

to Abdel-Nasser,

Gamal

(trans.

E.

S.

Farag).1972.

Nasser

Speaks:

PJ.

Mubarak.

Middle

East

Monographs

no.

1.

London.

Morssett

includes

TheCharter

Alahmed,

the

and

A.

complete

the

12

30

text

March

March

of

the

Philosophy

of

the

Political

University:

Power

“Voice

of

Two

paper

Conference.

the

prepared

Electronic

for

copy

Nasser

the

the

Era

Joint

available

at

Arabs

Radio:

Its

(1953–1967).”

Journalism

Morsy,

Laila.

1940–42”.

Middle

Cook,

2012.

SA.

Oxford.

Oxford

el-Ghonemy,

Gilbar

and

Gordon,

the

July

Jan

The

Riad,

Struggle

4,

1992.

Revolution.

“Britain’s

Studies,

University

Winckler,

Joel.

1989.

Eastern

for

Egypt:

No.

from

1.

in

to

Tahrir

Square.

Nasser’s

New

2004,

309??[ref

Hansen,

B

Nashashibi,

ref

Blessed

York,

Gordon,

Economic

Development:

Movement:

Egypt’s

Oxford

Free

University

Ofcers

and

New

D.

1993.

Egypt.

1975.

Foreign

Cambridge,

Trade

MA,

Regimes

USA.

Egypt

1945–1990:

and

Since

of

the

Mehran.

California

World

2005.

War.

The

Modern

Berkeley,

Middle

Los

East:

Angeles,

London.

APolitical

London.

M.

History

University

and

and

Coltman,

Egyptian

Politics:

The

Dynamics

of

San

Nasser

(Proles

and

Sadat:

Princeton

London,

I.

N.

5

L.

Fidel:

D.

TY

February

The

Power)

M.

NJ.

the

Ali

The

Political

University

Economy

Press.

New

York.

Longman.

London.

The

Routledge.

Cuban

Insurrection,

Transaction.

story

Castro:

My

(documentary)

Life:

a

Spoken

Biography

2009)

2015.

“A

Treatment

Real

1995.

untold

Fidel

Ome,

Terroristic

2003.

in

Martin,

Brunswick.

Schuster

University

Fidel

Brief

of

History

Cuba.”

Castro.

New

of

America’s

Alternet,

5

February

2015

Haven.

Press.

1979.

The

Brink:

The

Cuban

Missile

Crisis,

1962.

New

York,

Cromwell.

JL.

Guevara,

1998.

from

the

We

Now

Know:

Rethinking

Cold

War

History.

Oxford.

Press.

E.,

Reminiscences

of

the

Cuban

Revolutionary

War

(Harper

2009)

Hampsey,

Military

Press.

2004.

Castro

and

Ramonet,

F .

Major

Sierra

Russell

J.

Maestra:

Review.

Leavenworth, Kassem,

of

USA.

Nasser.

Castro,

Perennial,

First

NJ,

2007)

Gaddis,

NBER.

Society.

1992.

(director),

Clarendon

Politics

Muhammad

Nicolson.

and

Routledge.

Kamrava,

E.

Detzer,

p.33]

K.

Egypt

(DVDPickwick,

Yale

Press.

http://www.nber.org/books/hans75-1

Hopwood,

2009.

Cold-Blooded,

p.21]

Oxford.

Peter.

1952–1959.

NT. and

S.

Chomsky,

8

[see

The

Princeton,

RL

(Simon

Press.

286??

2014.

Bonachea,

Bravo,

Egypt,

64–94.

Nasser

From

and

Cuba – Castro

Balfour,

Historians

Policy

Pp

Egypt:

Effects

http://papers.ssrn.com/

Wartime

Vol.25,

Modern

Weidenfeld

Indiana

sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2047212

Amin

J.

Regimes.

Woodward,

Programme.

2011.

during

of

London.

Revolution,

2 and

History

Press.

of This

The

edition.

Basic

Waterbury, Documents,

1991.

4th

November–December

Fidel

Command

Kansas.

&

2002.

Castro’s

Revolutionary

General

Staff

College,

“Voices

Propaganda”.

Fort

http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/

Authoritarian

cuban-rebels/voices.htm Rule.

Colorado.

Lynne

Rienner.

Kellner, McNamara,

R.

2003.

Britain,

Nasser

and

the

Balance

of

Power

in

D.

East,

1952–1967.

London.

Frank

Cass

Mohammad.

1955.

Egypt’s

Destiny.

Ernesto

Chelsea

House

“Che”

Guevara

(World

Leaders

Past

&

Publishers.

Publishers.

Paìs, Neguib,

1989.

the

Present). Middle

London.

F .

February

1957.

“The

1956

Uprising

in

Santiago

de

Cuba.”

Gollancz.

Revolución.

Translated

and

reprinted

in

The

Militant

magazine.

http://www.nasser.org/home/main.aspx?lang=en

December2003. This

site

has

been

Alexandrina

number

of

speeches

Oweiss,

and

digital

(mostly

IM.

established

the

Gamal

in

audio-visual

in

Arabic).

“Egypt’s

cooperation

Abdel-Nasser

It

documents,

is

economy;

an

with

photos,

excellent

pressing

tool

and

for

It

includes

transcripts

further

Schoultz,

L.

2005.

The

Modern

Middle

East.

the

Revolution.

Cuban

E

and

research.

Stone,

O.,

USA.

and

Winckler,

Historical

O

(eds).

University

Press

Memory

2004.

of

in

Chapel

Comandante

Releasing,

2004)

London.

46.

Little

Hill.

Cuban

Republic:

University

of

The

North

United

Carolina

States

and

Press.

Sweig,

2004.

(documentary)

(DVD

Optimum

Home

JE.

Rethinking

Modern

Egypt.

Cuba:

Underground.

Inside

the

Cambridge,

Cuban

MA.

Revolution:

Harvard

Fidel

Castro

University

and

the

Press.

Routledge.

von,

A.

2011.

Red

Heat:

Conspiracy,

Murder,

and

the

Cold

Nasserism:

War Revolution

number

Infernal

issues”.

Tunzelmann, Podeh,

67,

That

of

Urban I.

2009.

a

http://faculty.georgetown.edu/imo3/epe/epe.htm

Pappé,

Vol

Bibliotheca

Foundation.

Gainesville,

in

the

Caribbean.

New

York,

NY.

Henry

Holt.

FL.

BBC

Florida.

News.

2

March

2005.

South

America’s

Leftward

Sweep.

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/4311957.stm This

–

is

M

a

collection

Riad

of

articles,

El-Ghonemy,

Development

which

“An

includes:

Assessment

of

Egypt’s

3

China – Mao

strategy” Becker,

–

Meir

Hatina,

Nasserist

“History,

legacy

in

Politics,

Mubarak’s

and

Collective

Memory:

the

Gad

G

Policy

–

Gilbar

in

Gabriel

in

and

Onn

Winckler,

“Nasser’s

Family

Planning

Davin,

M

D.

M

Rosenbaum,

Modern

Joel

Egyptian

Gordon,

Haz

Hungry

Ghosts:

Mao’s

Secret

Famine.

Holt

1998.

1997.

Mao.

Mao

London.

Zedong.

Longman.

Stroud.

Sutton

Publishing.

Perspective”

“Nasser

Literature

and

Nasserism

through

as

Allusions

Perceived

to

Songs”

al

Halim

Dikotter,

F .

2013.

The

Dikotter,

F .

2010.

Mao’s

Fairbank,

–

1998.

Egypt” Breslin.

–

J.

McDougal

and

“The

Nasserist

Nightingale

Longings”

and

the

Ra’is:

Abd

Belknap

Feigon,

Ivan

R.

JK.

1992.

Tragedy

Great

China:

A

of

Liberation.

Famine.

New

London.

London.

History.

Bloomsbury.

Walker.

Cambridge,

MA,

USA.

Press.

L.

2002.

Mao:

A

Reinterpretation.

Lanham,

MD,

USA.

Dee.

231

Fenby,

Jun,

J.

C.

Jung,

2008.

1991.

C,

and

Jonathan

Lynch,

The

Wild

Penguin

Swans.

Halliday,

J.

History

of

London.

2005.

Modern

Harper

Mao:

The

China.

London.

Penguin.

Collins.

Unknown

Story.

London,

Z.

2004.

2001.

Mao.

Selected

London.

Works

of

Tse

Tung.

Stockton,

CA,

A

History

Kaes,

Dimendberg,

J

and

CA,

Kershaw,

Routledge.

Mao

1983.

and

People. Mao,

P .

Weidenfeld

Oakland,

Cape.

M.

Johnson,

I.

of

The

Modern

World.

London.

Nicolson.

USA.

2008.

UC

The

E.

1995.

The

Weimar

Republic

Sourcebook.

Press.

Fuhrer

Myth:

How

Hitler

Won

Over

the

German

http://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/the-fuehrer-

USA.

myth-how-hitler-won-over-the-german-people-a-531909-2.html University

Press

of

the

Pacic.

https://www.marxists.org/reference/

Kershaw,

archive/mao/selected-works/index.htm)

I

cited

in

https://www.marxists.org/history/etol/

newspape/isj2/.../ovenden.htm Mitter,

Rana.

Modern

2005.

World.

A

Bitter

Oxford

Revolution.

University

China’s

Struggle

with

the

Kershaw,

Press.

Anfang Salisbury,

HE.

1993.

The

New

Emperors

Mao

and

Deng:

A

1930–33. Biography.

London.

Harper

S.

1975.

Mao

Tse

Tung.

London.

P .

1999.

Mao:

A

J.

1999.

Mao.

Spence,

J.

1990.

The

Munich,

Life.

London.

London.

G.

Hodder

&

E.

Weidenfeld

&

Januar

(from

1933,

Ausweg

Winkler,

HA.

aus

Die

der

Krise

deutsche

und

Staatskrise

Search

for

Modern

2002.

Germany.

Hitler’s

Oldenbourg

Children.

Verlag.

Stroud,

China.

1988.

The

Weimar

Republic.

UK.

London.

Sutton

Unwin

Publishing.

Hyman.

C.

2000.

“Mothers

in

the

Fatherland”,

cited

in

Gregor,

N,

Nicolson.

Nazism. New

York,

NY,

Oxford,

UK.

Oxford

University

Press.

USA.

McDonough, W .W .

30.

Stoughton.

Koonz, Spence,

“Der

Penguin.

Kolb, Short,

1993.

Staatsverfalls”

Collins.

Knopp, Schram,

I.

des

Dual

F .

2012.

Hitler

and

the

Rise

of

the

Nazi

Party.

London.

Norton.

Routledge. Zhisiu,

L.

Chatto

&

1994.

The

Private

Life

of

Chairman

Mao.

London.

Noakes,

R,

Ar ticles

Lynch,

History

Tarr,

Life

in

Noakes,

M.

2002.

‘Mao

Zedong:

Liberator

or

Oppressor

of

1987.

Overy,

March

Review.

2011.

Issue

“Stalin

and

Mao:

Parallel

the

J

In

Rise?”

R.

Peukert,

69.

Third

and

University

China?’

Review

Russel.

History

J.

“Social

Outcasts

in

the

Third

Reich”

in

Bessel,

Windus.

of

The

1991.

London.

Preuss,

1982.

G.

UK.

1984.

Oxford

Nazism

University

1919–45,

4

Press.

vols.

Exeter.

Press.

Dictators.

The

Modernity.

H.

Oxford,

Pridham,

Exeter

2004.

D.

Reich.

London.

Weimar

Penguin.

Republic:

The

Crisis

of

Classical

Penguin.

Cited

in

Corkery,

JF

and

Stone,

RCJ,

Weimar

Documentaries Germany

Williams,

Sue.

1997.

China:

A

Century

of

Revolution.

Zeitgeist

and

the

Emperor.

4

Nick.

A

and

2005.

E

Biography:

Television

Mao

Tse

Tung,

China’s

London.

Heinemann.

H.

2000.

“The

Voice

of

Destruction,

1940”.

Cited

in

Peasant Jenkins

and

Feuchtwanger,

Rees,

L.

1997.

USA.

MJF

Hitler’s

Germany.

London.

John

Murray.

Networks. The

Nazis:

A

Warning

from

History.

New

York,

NY,

Books.

Germany – Hitler Reitlinger,

Benz,

W

and

Pehle,

W .

1997.

Encyclopaedia

of

German

Resistance

to

Nazi

Movement.

New

York,

NY,

USA.

JCG.

KD.

1955.

“Die

Auösung

der

Weimarer

Sauer

and

Schulz,

Stufen

der

Machtergreifung.

Bracher,

USA.

KD.

Verlag

1995.

Harvard

H.

1961.

H.

P .

Jonathan

Cape.

Points

in

Modern

Times.

Cambridge,

Burleigh,

M.

2000.

The

Burleigh,

M.

2006.

Sacred

British

Foreign

Sax,

BC

MA,

USA.

Dark

Valley:

A

Panorama

of

the

1930s.

and

Third

Reich:

Causes.

International.

A

New

History.

London.

Harper

London.

D.

and

(ed.)

in

Woodward,

EL

London.

and

Oswald

Butler,

R,

Wolff.

Documents

1919–39.

D.

1992.

London.

Inside

HMSO.

Hitler’s

D.C.

Germany.

Lexington,

Heath.

D.

1929.

Programme.

New

2000.

Cited

in

Gregor,

N,

Nazism.

Oxford,

UK.

WL.

2002.

Press.

“Berlin

1934–41”

Diary:

in

Journal

Stackelberg,

of

R

a

Foreign

and

York,

NY,

Sourcebook:

an

Anthology

of

Texts.

Winkle,

London.

S,

The

Nazi

Routledge.

USA. LL.

1995.

Encyclopaedia

of

the

Third

Reich.

New

York,

NY,

Publishers.

Stone,

RCJ.

1982.

Weimar

Germany

and

the

McGraw-Hill.

Third Speer,

Crew,

Heinemann.

Longman.

Pan.

USA. JF

London.

London.

Perennial.

Snyder,

London.

Policy

University

Germany

Reich.

Cited

Kuntz,

Correspondent

Corkery,

1922–1945.

Hitler.

London.

Shirer,

Library

to

MA,

Oxford

Workers

Nation,

Press.

Brendon,

Communist

a

The German Opposition to Hitler.

1948.

Schoenbaum, The

of

Bismarck

Opladen.

Turning

University

2000.

Alibi

1962.

of Westdeutscher

SS:

From

Republik”,

Rumbold, Bracher,

1956.

1970.

Continuum.

Rothfels, Bracher,

G.

the Röhl,

in

Reich.

Films. Rauschning,

Davidson,

Third

A.

1970.

Inside

the

Third

Reich.

London.

Sphere.

Heinemann.

1994.

Nazism

and

German

Society

1933–45.

Stackelberg,

R

and

Winkle,

an

of

Texts.

SA.

2002.

The

Nazi

Germany

Sourcebook:

London. Anthology

London.

Routledge.

Routledge.

Stephenson, Eatwell,

R.

1995.

Fascism:

A

History

London.

Socialism” Evans,

R.

Gay,

1968.

2003.

The

Coming

of

the

Third

Reich.

London.

Weimar

Culture:

The

Outsider

as

Insider.

in

2003.

Kallis,

“Fascism

AA,

The

and

Gender:

Fascism

Reader.

Women

under

London.

National

Routledge.

Penguin. Strasser,

P .

J.

Vintage.

O.

1940.

Hitler

and

I.

London.

Jonathan

Cape.

London. Stresemann,

G.

1982.

Germany

the

Third

Cited

in

Corkery,

JF

and

Stone,

RCJ,

Weimar

Penguin.

Geary,

D.

1993.

Hitler

and

Nazism.

Lancaster

Pamphlets.

and

Reich.

London.

Heinemann.

London. Taylor,

AJP .

1967.

Cited

in

www.johndclare.net/Word%20documents/

Routledge. Hitler%20Historiography.doc. Goldhagen,

D.

1996.

Hitler’s

Willing

Executioners.

London.

Taylor, Gregor,

N.

(ed.).

2000.

Nazism

Oxford,

UK.

Oxford

University

AJP .

R.

1991.

The

Nature

of

Fascism.

London.

1978.

HA.

2000.

S.

Course

of

Grandeur

German

and

History.

Decline

London.

“Nazism

and

the

Third

Reich”,

in

Methuen.

Jenkins,

J

and

Routledge. Feuchtwanger,

Haffner,

The

Press. Turner,

Grifn,

Europe,

Abacus.

E,

Hitler’s

Germany.

London.

John

Murray.

alphahistory.com/nazigermany/nazi-germanyWard

Price,

Wels,

O.

G.

1939.

I

know

these

Dictators.

London.

Harrap.

quotations/

Himmler,

H.

2000.

Cited

in

Hite,

J

and

Hinton,

C,

Weimar

and

1933.

http://germanhistorydocs.ghi-dc.org/pdf/eng/

Nazi English_6.pdf

Germany.

London.

John

Murray. Wright,

Jenkins,

J

and

Feuchtwanger,

E.

2000.

Hitler’s

Germany.

USA. JohnMurray.

232

G.

1968.

The

Ordeal

London. Harper

Torchbooks.

of

Total

War

1939–45.

New

York,

NY,

Revision template: C omparing leaders

of dierent authoritarian states

In

Paper

question

With

how

2

there

format

reference

Additionally,

is

likely

asking

This

to

important

that

you

of

to

the

researched

of

this

your

all

can

be

and

carefully,

You

template

will

one

rise

and

of

like

used

to

of

the

Choose

will

that

in

you

their

looking

for

questions

brief

different

for

a

quick

course,

leaders

you

to

have

rise

discuss.

studied,

to

strong

on

each

The

explain

fully

power.

global

topic

awareness

in

Paper

all

concerning

revision

have

that

between

to

notes

authoritarian

construct

you

headings

apply

and

leader

make

of

allows

may,

for

2

so

will

it

be

dictators.

to

rule

leaders

this:

played

be

the

two

differences

natures

named

propaganda

least

headings

different

no

more

authoritarian

role

choosing.

similarities

Not

an

compare

characteristics.

adapt

be

be

examiners

at

template

aspects

a

will

will

the

of

your

their

own

studied,

will

allow

different

authoritarian

various

states.

key

if

features

template,

using

you

This,

to

and

and

headings

assess

the

regimes.

states

because

of

their

situations.

Features of the authoritarian state

Egypt – Nasser

Cuba – Castro

China – Mao

Germany – Hitler

Ideology

Leadership

Economic aims and methods

Par ty

Secret police

Youth and education

Religion

Relationship to army

Media and propaganda

Women: status and role

Racial policies/treatment of

minorities

Organized labour

Coming to power: nature of

preceding government

233

why

Index

did

Catholic

Central

A

Abwehr

(Germany)

agitprop

rise

154

ancestor

worship

anti-Semitism

applied

Arab

Hugo

to

China

219

authoritarianism

Bamboo

Curtain

Bandung

barefoot

Batista,

furnaces

coup,

Operation

Chinese

57,

62,

March

Verano

presidency,

why

the

did

beggars

and

Batista

homeless

people

collapse?

in

Nazi

May

Germany

Red

(Bureau

Activities,

Willi

Britain

7,

Suez

Bush,

Repression

of

Communist

also

Castro,

Fidel

attack

on

Moncada

Barracks,

26

July

1953

the

leader

of

Castro’s

communism

Castro’s

Cuba,

Castro’s

early

Castro’s

legacy

Castro’s

trial

October

1996

life

Castro’s

use

Castro’s

victory

Mao’s

Long

consolidating

the

of

the

dealing

with

emergence

exile

in

74

revolution

media

Fidel

Mexico

to

the

revolution

87–9

return

to

Cuba

1955–1956

Granma

support

care

L

and

did

journey

the

peasants

Santiago

in

Castro’s

with

Cuba

96

Castro,

take

control

Sierra

of

Maestra,

Cuba?

59–65

November

1956

problems

1960s

and

Mongoose

Operation

Verano

to

role

power

of

solutions

in

the

early

90–2

Operation

rise

the

99

urban

Maestra

Hitler’s

US’s

revolutionary

movements

Cuba

in

campaign,

1924

control

Zhou

in

and

1956–1959

Castro’s

trial

in

1953

and

68–9

repression

war

on

Cuba

98,

in

99

the

early

1960s

family

138

137–8

CPP

Reform),

82,

in

the

95–6

early

Revolution,

Cuba

in

the

early

1960s

Laws

the

95

2008

105–6

106

Special

Affair

to

solutions

the

Period

Act,

99,

and

with

93–4

105

1996

101

100

Campaign,

problems

94–5

USSR

and

1986–1987

solutions

Special

Period

and

agriculture

Special

Period

and

industrial

Special

Period

and

politics

society

Special

Period

and

Special

Period

in

time

of

95

96–9

102–3

production

102

104

103–4

peace”,

1989–c.

2000

reaction

to

the

Revolution

“Special

(China),

Period”

101–2

1966–1976

139,

157–8

140

attacks

139

on

Deng

moderates

“Cleansing

Cultural

Enlai

Agency,

US)

66,

decline

105

events

86

fall

52

of

Little

for

Mutual

Xiaoping,

Liu

Shaoqi

and

other

143–4

the

class

ranks”

Assistance)

PLA

100

Revolution

of

of

the

campaign,

the

Lin

and

Cultural

Biao,

Red

rallies

148

Red

153

Egypt

145

140–1

144–5

139–40

Red

Guards’

move

to

the

144

and

the

destruction

of

the

“Four

141–3

Tiananmen

29

Revolution

141

Guards

Olds”

155

144

Revolution

1971–1972

Book

the

abroad

Cultural

countryside

Incident,

1976

145

59–60

presidencies,

Batista’s

presidency,

trial

March

in

victory

the

return

to

USA

refugees

Cuban

Revolution,

171

Xiaoping

on

143–4,

Moncada

Egypt

before

army

from

Spain

coup

60

Free

1933–1934

Castro

145,

139,

140,

Xiaoping

146,

154,

and

158

other

moderates

147

E

61–2

1934–1940

138,

Deng

Programme,

97

Fidel

139

Plan

attacks

Cuba

76–7

Cuban

of

Deng

63–4

68–9

independence

emergence

and

Lama

Dawes

65

1940–1944

Mexico

and

presidents,

1952

69–70

1953

the

D

and

Dalai

coup,

exile

1944–1948

64

Batista’s

Cuban

of

Rectication

155–7

137

economies

and

on

1996

Helms-Burton

153

1948–1952

Cuba

72

end

133

Guatemala

Exchange,

Castro’s

Cuban

problems

116

57–8,

the

Reform

legacy

140

Intelligence

(Council

communes

solutions

war

Castro’s

US

Dehuai

memory

Castro’s

73–4

between

economic

89

see

actions

command

reform

1968–1971

October

similarities

social

En-lai

80–2

Agrarian

87–9

Cuba,

132

(Central

82

88

99–100

the

system

93

1963–2008

Cultural

Han

1955–1956

79

campaign

Sierra

Wu

Castro’s

75–6

74–5

rural

Peng

of

and

relations

136–7

of

to

Castro’s

133

in

Cuba”

land

economic

133

Auténtico

71–2

military

state

92,

Estudantil)

90–2

economic

social

campaign

91,

and

economic

154–4

Flowers”

“new

122–4

119–20

the

85–6

83–4

58,

1960–1965

Institute

116–17

131

of

Cotton

116–22

118–19

and

57,

Revolucionario

problems

response

Ochoa

women

the

1959

82–3

84

Rebellion,

(National

Agrarian

124–5

GMD

de-Stalinization

concubinage

77

the

Cuba

89

112

1931–1945

71–4

77–8

90

revolution

Crisis

(Directorio

US’s

China

CCP

1927–1934

struggles

Comintern

interview

the

1959–1962

131

purges

Comecon

uprising,

the

centralism

collectivization

72–3

71

education

1957

Castro

to

the

and

1956

Matthews’

February

how

of

expedition

November

Herbert

of

collective

the

with

policies

purge

US

power

Missile

81,

of

consolidating

115

of

66–8

95

movements

collapse?

January

consolidating

US

148–54

1934–1935

purge

Chou

leadership

military

114

(CCP)

69,

1956–1959

regime

Invasion

nationalization

115–16

1945–1949

and

Pigs

establishing

1949

121

Terror

power

CIA

65–6

Party

Mao

affecting

religious

triads

69–70

gaining

health

March,

line

registration

83–4

97

Castro

and

with

84

opposition

of

campaign

Republic

Front

mass

Politburo

March

of

Long

party

75

of

1960s

1916–1927

1953

79

campaign,

Batista

Castro’s

152–4

ideas

July

revolutionary

challenges,

121

occupation,

one-party

76–7

119,

War,

Soviet,

impact

Programme,

68–9

power

Republic,

1919

26

(M-26-7)

Cuba

Castro’s

DRE

113–14

the

Escambray

140,

Julio

1959–1962

Cuba

United

Great

Maestra

1911

uprising,

75–6

in

urban

Maestra

Cuban

People’s

Movement,

denunciation

105–6

Moncada

Sierra

Republic

114

139,

policies

“Hundred

the

consolidating

control

2008

powers

113

before

the

137,

Civil

Democratic

94

to

propaganda

of

82–3

65

1953

comparison

1959–62

106

and

of

Cuba,

of

People’s

policies

66–8

becoming

foreign

127

Jiangxi

65

57–8

the

Cuba

the

158

Cixi

Communist

Japanese

63,

by

People’s

113,

China

118,

emergence

106

rst

Àngel

the

revolutionary

economic

154

Castro,

and

period,

Chinese

C

234

of

cadres

144

W

of

Bay

century

Empress

Army

spread

see

43

George

in

Fourth

Chinese

226

Kong

Crisis

creation

controlled

Mao

132,

warlord

65

208

110,

Buddhism

the

Cuba)

Brandt,

Hong

for

the

Verano

the

attack,

de

parties

did

NRA

famine

77–8

220–1

BRAC

Sierra

112

63–4

of

26

Santiago

71

74–5

117

118

and

19th

establishment

1940–1944

regime

1926–1928

role

125

114–15

language

Dowager

65

75–6

Batista’s

122–4,

why

the

conditions

63

1952

1927

119,

127–33

146

159

Fulgencio

Batista’s

1955

political

and

1956

Barracks

Operation

116–17,

China

Chairman

135

Conference,

doctors

of

during

150

Moncada

140

141

Revolution

areas

backyard

(CCRG)

79

Terror,

expedition

Movimiento

Expedition,

republic

B

Group

110–11

1911

7

Granma

77–8

November

Revolution

Kai-shek

White

7

elements

collapse?

105

139,

Northern

152

regime

200–1

power

Boda

Chiang

223–5

communism

League

asocial

Chen

154

Batista

Cultural

Chávez,

199

the

Church

and

62–3

65–6

the

puppet

as

1952

7–8,

legitimate

d’état

of

Ofcers

importance

Nasser

as

unrest

and

1952

and

of

9–11

form

their

cotton

emerging

of

government

16–17

9

methods

in

14–16

Egyptian

leader

disillusionment

history

17–18

12–13

29

I N D E X

violence

Egypt

and

revolt

1952–1954

cult

of

the

leader

elimination

rst

few

the

21–4

after

Rally

the

coup

War

agrarian

cinema

mosques

unions

controlling

the

universities

Nasser’s

use

37

of

from

the

the

media

move

towards

the

western

Soviet

Nasser’s

domestic

evaluating

Nasser’s

foreign

Five-Year

Plan

industrialization

policies

industrialization

1956–1970

33–4

Nasser’s

development

Nasser’s

domestic

Nasser’s

foreign

Nasser’s

legacy

National

strategy

policies

policy

the

“War

Arab

over

Yemen

San

87,

Water”

Eisenhower,

eliminationist

female

feudal

First

systems

Terror,

Nazi

Versailles

of

Suez

Free

7,

people

Heinrich

Adolf

163,

224–6

conspiracy

of

the

and

Act

1933

of

to

Four

by

constitution

in

Feng

of

election

%

crisis

iron

24–7

rice

of

of

vote

of

for

1923

the

political

parties

172

Italy

of

the

March

1933

authoritarian

democracy

1933

state,

August

Hitler

control

in

as

support

and

for

Chancellor

the

policies,

Hitler’s

methods

188–93

Hitler’s

rise

Holocaust,

of

to

power

194,

of

powers

221,

policy

206

Red

Shaoqi

136,

through

196–7

Joy)

(GMD)

139,

141,

143–4

144–5

139–40

140,

Liu

166

87

1971–1972

Book

on

Machado,

222–3

222,

141,

Shaoqi

154

and

other

moderates

153

175–6,

Gerardo

Manchuria

225

179,

Mao

of

Führer

of

Zedong

Chinese

190

state,

August

74,

foreign

188

Futian

210–18

210–18

1934

Mao

of

to

197–9

power

192–3

138

and

the

124–5

130

the

CCP

People’s

116–22

Republic,

1949

deication

of

Hitler

203

164–6

Nazi

Red

March,

and

Book

cultural

grip

Mao’s

ideology

on

Martí,

anti-Semitism

154,

213

system

the

Israeli

(Tripartite)

Egypt

60,

70,

126

Water

Huber

Carrier

47

of

Jewish

113

Manchuria,

Nanking,

Demands”

population

in

Nazi

1941–1945

Jieshi

see

Jiang

Qing

140,

115,

201–2,

measures,

Jiang

1931–1945

1937–1938

Witnesses

Chiang

141,

and

Moncada

116

Germany

223–4

224–5

Morgan,

152,

191,

195,

200,

217,

220

the

homeless

outsiders”

221

Witnesses

and

220–1

222

221–2

223–5

physically

handicapped

people

Cuba

communism

Alexander

Benito

170,

69

135

171,

88,

89

188,

200

225–6

157–8

N

Nanjing

Nasser,

173

136,

188,

166

William

Mussolini,

Massacre,

Gamal

of

the

culture

Pact

126,

186,

Programme,

monolithic

cult

Kellogg-Briand

97

122,

222–3

221–2

Kai-shek

K

78,

116,

population

mentally

122–4

123

1933–1945

143–4,

19–20

71,

83,

88

218,

Jehovah’s

119

restoration

63,

82,

115

121–2

208

millenarianism

minorities

43

beggars

116,

1916–1927

61,

179–80,

meaculpism

46–8

National

War

134

130

225

151

with

137–9

122

1935–1945

José

157–8

1955–1976

136–7

period,

Marxism

223–5

policies

power,

power

Yanan,

119–20

136

struggles

to

138

118–19

139–40

Stalin

purges

119

campaign

1934–1935

Mao’s

power

221

1930

1927–1934

Mao’s

party

225–6

Germany

145–7

Soviet,

Long

Matos,

tyrants

148

1945–1949

Flowers”

Little

Mao

the

policy

Incident,

Jiangxi

186–7

110

Holocaust,

just

122–4

130

War,

of

reactionaries

anti-Jewish

200

119,

110–11,

movement

Civil

“Hundred

184

military

rise

1933–1934

1933–1945

Knives,

79,

in

bowl

of

95,

establishment

1934

158

110,

62–3

115,

counter-revolutionaries

democratic

power,

policies,

1941–1945

of

110,

anti-rightist

183–4

oratory

131

Jehovah’s

174–6

1933–1945

225–6

groups

195–6

politics

Cuba”

Biao,

Lysenkoism

171–2,

end

164–6

1941–1945

foreign

Allied

183–7

domestic

impact

January–March

extremism

Hitler’s

KPD

(Strength

wing

in

Lin

attacks

68–9

“Twenty-one

227

dictatorship,

Jewish

resistance

200,

207

emergence

the

the

and

1924

occupation

1934

179–80

German

growth

to

171,

191,

183–4

Guomindang

homosexuals

Japan

Rape

of

Liu

J

parties,

180–2

from

see

“biological

206

Führer

165,

188,

213

135,

of

Little

170–1

main

Freude

Right

Biao

fall

163

Meiji

establishment

and

Lin

121

7

Suez

184

extent

119,

191

intentionalists

18

163

propaganda

results

durch

warlord

route

115–16,

Reichstag

the

“Chaos

185

of

in

institutionalized

19–24

140

110,

approximate

effects

the

Long

power

Indo-China

23

politics

the

from

Life

124–5

Germany

Reichstag

election

the

ideograms

17–18

to

Party)

185,

opposition

rise

approach

the

economic

116–17,

222

170,

powers

confrontation

of

165,

and

factors

Holocaust,

G

Germany

186,

consolidation

Israel

Gang

86,

I

leadership

181,

143–4

Nazi

domestic

trial

166–8

168

rule

179–80,

112

homosexuals

Rally

maintaining

rewriting

in

Hitler’s

Hu

to

134–6

Communist

communist

118

Hitler’s

rise

163

14–16

pragmatic

82,

43

Ofcers

1950–1953

anti-movements

pragmatism

110

Liberation

76,

180–2

155

Crisis

73,

208–9

propaganda

Treaty

footbinding

146–7

M

99

156

Germany

115,

1945–1949

Germany

government

115–16,

72,

104

114,

1927

establishment

31

War

98,

War,

of

Lebensraum

70,

137–8,

L

150

122–4

other

post-war

France

92–3,

(GMD)

opposition

World

(China)

122–4

Enabling

44–6

46

infanticide

175,

Kuomintang

79

151

63,

93,

from

Left

“Che”

91,

152–4

1931–1945

Night

30–2,

64,

1931–1945

charisma

30

28,

1958–1962

enterprises

Civil

burning

163

fellahin

63,

(China)

occupation,

March

feddans

62,

86

handicapped

F

fascism

Ramón

Forward,

91,

in

War,

movement

1958–1962

89,

opposition

Kraft

195

H

35–6

anti-Semitism

194,

212

occupation,

Hitler,

87,

186,

205

Japanese

47

81,

184,

202–3,

91

223

166–80

163

189–90,

Nikita

(German

172,

Japanese

gypsies

41–8

(UAR)

110,

90,

66

28–9

46

Dwight

Korean

1934–1945

202–5

1918–1933/34

183,

Plan

Ernesto

89,

White

43

Republic

role

175,

Martín,

Chinese

38–9

War

its

57,

Joseph

Himmler,

opposition

episode

Reich,

burning

7,

Hermann

207,

(Tripartite)

Third

194

context

Guomindang

48–9

29–38

aims

and

Republic,

Leap

50

silencing

the

Fitzgerald

Union)

110

KPD

state-owned

43–4

39–41

52

Charter

during

Great

34–5

32–3

United

Korea

Famine,

32

1952–1956

Suez

Khrushchev,

209

Guatemala

camp

camp

policies

industrialization

radio

207–9

1939–1945

Guevara,

evaluating

rst

1933–1939

policy,

Great

49–51

John

(Soviet

policy,

Grau

37–8

36

42–3

Egypt’s

KGB

foreign

Four-Year

46–7

the

away

Kennedy,

218–20

220–5

foreign

Göring,

Israel

the

move

women

regime’s

Goebbels,

30–2

controlling

Egypt’s

on

minorities

regime’s

global

47–8

controlling

and

on

Nazi

Gestapo

War)

with

policies

Nazi

Weimar

24

49–50

culture

policies

propaganda

25

Day

reforms

confrontation

Nazi

of

193–202

constitution

(Six

of

impact

opposition

20–1

1952–1970

1967

impact

23

triumphant

rewriting

Egypt

26–7

rivals

months

Liberation

Nasser

of

13–14

19–20

leader

and

domestic

1937–1938

Abdel

17–18,

26–7

Nasser’s

policies

123

20

use

of

the

media

49–50

29–38

235

evaluating

Nasser’s

domestic

evaluating

Nasser’s

foreign

foreign

policy

aims

Nasser

post-1967

Nasser

triumphant

legacy

Socialist

nationalization

Nazis

163,

abolition

of

pashas

28–9

Peng

Party

(NSDAP) see

82,

169,

trade

139,

95–6

174,

unions

and

political

abuse

of

the

democratic

system

structures

of

new

conditions

cultural

and

in

emerged

of

social

of

groups

213

and

individuals

of

Gestapo

1933

to

control

227

dictatorship,

January–

179–80

Gleichschaltung

185,

Four-Year

of

foreign

policy

of

policies

on

minorities

impact

of

policies

on

women

Freude

movement

literature,

and

lm

Joy)

policy,

1933–1939

policy,

1939–1945

207–9

Nazi

regime’s

foreign

Nazi

wartime

economy

Night

of

the

NSDAP’s

Long

opportunism

opposition

Third

Reich,

1934–1945

offering

propaganda

public

purge

works

of

theatre

the

Neghib,

Socialism

191

202–3

projects

civil

National

of

triads

132

UK

1955–1976

137–9

relations

with

the

religious

policies

rift,

structure

the

of

intimidation

and

education

Mohammad

and

murder

the

policies

18,

21,

22,

24,

25,

26,

27

of

43,

57,

128

146–7

Arnaldo

Operation

Mongoose

Operation

Valkyrie,

German

opposition

main

resistance

to

Nazism

forms

nature

of

of

the

Operation

(the

1944

and

in

Cuban

the

opposition

from

communist

opposition

from

Jehovah’s

opposition

from

the

Catholic

opposition

from

the

KPD

opposition

from

the

Left

opposition

from

the

Protestant

opposition

from

the

SPD

youth/student

military

194

202

with

in

US

response

the

to

the

Soviet

Cuban

Period”

101–2

Revolution,

war

on

Cuba

in

the

early

1960s

Union

interests

165

W

130,

189–90,

Weimar

202–6

201

Republic,

1918–1933/34

1918–1919

166–8

1919–1923

168–70

1924–1929

172–4

1930–1933

174–6

economic

main

141–3,

crisis

political

of

1923

parties

25-point

Weltanschauung

144

René

Leni

Left

wing

192,

the

Chibás

62,

63,

64,

65,

pro-natalist

79

women

204–5

politics

Wu

198

Long

Knives,

1934

Han

War

Zhou

War

1894–1895

110

Sino-Japanese

War

1937–1945

123–4

National

Sino-Soviet

43–4,

rift,

the

Weimar

programme

era

169

171–2

170

203

China

Germany

policies

the

155–7

218

218–19

workplace

and

the

public

219–20

140

46

Shikai

Enlai

145,

Sino-Japanese

Union

170–1

of

114,

115

Z

115

110

and

166

7

33

110,

164,

Y

Yuan

sequestration

163,

186–7

163

World

in

sphere

166

Yemen

socialism

147

42

38

Ernst

Shanghai

99

China

87–9

economic

see

vested

105

152

Eduardo

Second

Project)

of

86

“Special

Communist

200–1

Cuban

Republic

Guatemala

to

Nazi

110,

101

(the

People’s

in

Soviet

236

1996

in

Shandong

197

Act,

Mongoose

women

S

201

61–2

women

201–2

Churches

USA

171

165

Russia

195–6

the

165

of

44–6

135

89

196––7

195

(UAR)

43,

revisionism

Night

Church

124

revanchism

and

139

204–5

Vernunftrepublikaner

Röhm,

Witnesses

1959

168

(UN)

Plan

reaction

139

9

control

Guards

Right

groups

of

66,

1959–1962

(Bambi)

Churches

Seyer

Ribas,

145

V

neutralism

Riefenstahl,

197–9

opposition

opposition

200

1976

124

actions

USSR

Luis

75,

199

by

the

powers

193

193–4

1944

opposition

of

99

195

opposition

treatment

the

Allied

Germany

resistance

Valkyrie,

Project)

199

S.

US

US’s

133

Carriles,

166

Red

100

Will

US

128

R

Ochoa,

116

Republic

and

NSDAP’s

O

207

Stresemann

Britain

relations

147

1959

the

158

propaganda

Qutb,

see

Operation

China

pragmatism

quality

214–18

the

Harry

Dawes

family

130–1

uprising

174,

of

147

uprising

Arab

Q

188–9

115,

125,

Nations

154–4

PRC

172,

failures

Incident,

United

147

1958–1976

reform

113,

Protestant

185

US

campaigns

Sino-Soviet

Posada

114,

Versailles

of

Cuba

nations

171,

and

Helms-Burton

other

29

213

United

US

128

and

208

205

U

157–8

women

188,

158

133

with

protectorates

211–12

service

134–6

145–7

beginnings

197,

146,

166,

185,

128

Treaty

205

violence,

youth

of

189–90,

136

132

relations

positive

193–202

programme

China

education

policies

SDP

184,

28–9

Gustav

110,

Tiananmen

Truman,

and

Germany)

33–4

Yatsen

Taiwan

150–2

132–3

power,

also

Canal

Triumph

grip

Politburo

the

on

Party,

179–80,

T

148–9

152–4

1958–1962

War

the

137–8,

60

173–4

Tibetan

Mao’s

Pinyin

191

during

Sun

172,

Spain

179–80

139–45

159

policy

from

136,

capitalism

Tibet

foreign

see

186–7

171–2

Josef

171,

bureaucracy

Suez

1966–1976

1952–1957

cultural

Tibetan

1934

programme

130

Mao’s

thought

209

213–14

Knives,

25-point

propaganda

affecting

195

era

146

state

189,

from

170,

Democratic

achievements

131

killings

169,

state

129

61–2

168,

state

127

1950–1953

on

(Social

structuralists

Korean

reunication

204–5

foreign

the

USA

166,

168,

Stalin,

155–7

213

music,

regime’s

through

to

1955

Mao’s

220–5

218–20

(Strength

136,

130

language

policies

206

impact

durch

War,

one-party

212

move

1958–1962

camps

moderate

187

Plan

135,

131

the

the

independence

Stresemann,

China

regions

reforms

of

128,

144

of

Forward,

reform

mass

194

Göring’s

Terror

literacy,

authoritarian

March

Great

land

August

180–2

of

Guards’

Plan,

Leap

(PLA)

156

and

Great

Korean

state,

Army

Revolution,

Famine,

59–60

and

opposition

Conference,

Five-Year

impact

206

Führer

155

154

Red

Great

labour

the

democracy

Nazi

145,

the

Republic

health

188

210

establishment

impact

state

210–11

propaganda

1934

rst

203

authoritarian

policies

recovery

employment

extent

press

the

165–6

and

economic

the

which

demonization

Kraft

and

Cultural

192

broadcasting

effects

139,

censorship

205

from

societies

Bandung

bribery

57,

Cuba

75

SPD

anti-movements

Reich

72,

139

administrative

189

the

187

art

Lama

Liberation

People’s

administrative

71,

Spartacists

countryside

parties

186

70,

191

140,

PLA

176

69,

Cuban

Dehuai

People’s

Nazis

63,

13

patriarchal

38–9

33,

164,

Panchen

strategy

“Frank”

7

palingenesis

52

Charter

Francisco

Palestine

25

Nasser’s

Spain

P

Paìs,

50–1

development

National

39–41

48–9

41–8

Nasser’s

National

policies

policies

Socialism

66,

93–4,

1958–1976

186

124

146–7

146,

120,

147

122,

135,

136,

137,

138,

139,

A U T H O R I TA R I A N

S TAT E S Authors

Written by leading examiners and IB educators, this course book most Brian Gray

comprehensively covers World History Topic 10 from the syllabus for first Sanjay Perera

examination in 2017. Enabling learners to critically explore historical concepts,

the student-centred approach enables big-picture understanding and

Verity Aylward

Mariam Habibi

strengthens results.

O xford course books are the only DP resources developed with the IB.

This means that they are:

➜

The most comprehensive and accurate match to IB specifications

➜

Written by exper t and experienced examiners and teachers

➜

Packed with accurate assessment suppor t, directly from the IB

➜

Truly aligned with the IB philosophy, equipping learners to tackle

key concepts, ATL and TOK

Fidel Castro giving a speech

Build a critical and thematic understanding,

strengthening assessment potential

Embed the key skills and enable confident

understanding of the Paper 2 assessment,

suppor ting results.

Also available, from Oxford

Print and online pack

978 0 19 835484 0

978 0 19 835492 5

enilnO

enilnO

Online book

How

1

Who’s on the cover?

to

get

in

contact:

web

www.oxfordsecondary.com/ib

email

[email protected]

tel

+44

(0)1536

452620

fax

+44

(0)1865

313472