03 Brinton-Brinton. 2010. The linguistic structure of Modern English. Pages 251-254

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The Linguistic Structure of Modern English Laurel J. Brinton University of British Columbia

Donna M. Brinton University of Southern California

John Benjamins Publishing Company Amsterdam / Philadelphia

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The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information Sciences — Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI Z39.48-1984.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Brinton, Laurel J. The linguistic structure of modern English / Laurel J. Brinton, Donna M. Brinton. -- Rev. ed.    p.   cm.   Previously published as: The structure of modern English : a linguistic introduction, c2000.   Includes bibliographical references and index.   1. English language--Grammar.  2. English language--Phonology.  3. English language--Syntax. I. Brinton, Donna.  II. Brinton, Laurel J. Structure of modern English.  III. Title. PE1106.B73    2010 425--dc22  2010007276 isbn 978 90 272 1171 2 (Hb; alk. paper) isbn 978 90 272 1172 9 (Pb; alk. paper) isbn 978 90 272 8824 0 (Eb) © 2010 – John Benjamins B.V. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by print, photoprint, microfilm, or any other means, without written permission from the publisher. John Benjamins Publishing Company • P.O. Box 36224 • 1020 me Amsterdam • The Netherlands John Benjamins North America • P.O. Box 27519 • Philadelphia PA 19118-0519 • USA



Chapter 9.  Finite and nonfinite clauses

a. b. c. d. e.

Jacob said that he had seen the movie already. ⇒ Did Jacob say that he had seen the movie already? That Jacob has seen that movie already is possible. ⇒ *Is that Jacob has seen that movie already possible? Is it possible that Jacob has seen that movie already?

You may also have multiple embedding, of course. Below is the D-structure tree for the sentence It is possible that Ferdinand could have believed that the world is not flat: (3)

S NP

Aux

VP

– S

T

be possible

S

Comp that

pres

Aux

NP Ferdinand

T

M

past

can

VP – V

Perf have

-en

V





– S

Vgp Comp

believe that

S the world…

Self-Testing Exercise: Do Exercise 9.1

1.2  Adverbial clauses Table 9.2.  Adjunct Adverbial Clauses 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

The words popped out before I had time to check them. (COCA:FIC) He searched the empty bar as if he were looking for assistance. (COCA:FIC) Meg felt embarrassed because she wore only a thin T-shirt. (COCA:FIC) And there’s coffee on the counter if you want it. (COCA:FIC) I frowned, although I wasn’t sure why. (COCA:FIC) The bureaucracy is tediously slow, while the legislature works at light speed. (COCA:MAG) I came to England in such a hurry that I only packed one pair of shoes. (COCA:FIC) She earns less and works harder than she did in a corporation. (COCA:NEWS) She wanted to keep talking so that the conversation would not end. (COCA:FIC)

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252 The Linguistic Structure of Modern English

In the previous chapter, we saw PPs, AdvPs, and occasionally NPs functioning adverbially. In this section, we look at clauses which can have an adverbial function; these are called adverbial clauses. Table 9.2 provides examples of clauses functioning as adjunct adverbials. These clauses express the adverbial notions of time (1), manner (2), and reason (3) – that is, they answer the questions when?, how?, and why? – and are comparable to PPs and AdvPs such as (1) {at noon, yesterday}, (2) {curiously, with a happy expression}, and (3) out of fear. However, adverbial clauses can express a wider range of adverbial notions, such as condition (4), concession (5), contrast (6), result (7), comparison (8), and purpose (9). Adverbial clauses may also function as disjunct and conjunct adverbials, e.g.: if I may speak frankly (dA) although these are important considerations (cA) if I judge accurately (dA) while we’re on the subject (cA) unless I am mistaken (dA) in case you don’t know (cA)

Disjunct adverbial clauses are much more common than conjunct adverbial clauses. Like the that‑clause, the adverbial clause includes a fully formed S, with the similar restriction that it cannot be interrogative or imperative. Also like the that‑clause, it begins with a complementizer, but in adverbial clauses, a much greater variety of lexical items serve as complementizers. We will need to revise our rule for Comp as follows: Comp → {while, since, because, although, if, when, so that, as, such, before, after, until, as long as, as soon as, by the time that, now that, once, inasmuch as … }5

Note that this is not an exhaustive listing of the complementizers. An adverbial clause is thus an –S. HINT:  We call the complementizer that in that-clauses and the complementizers intro­ ducing adverbial clauses “pure complementizers” because they have only one function, namely, to subordinate the clause that follows to the one that precedes. In D-structure, these complementizers appear in Comp position. Below we will see that other complementizers (relatives and interrogatives) are not generated in Comp position in D-structure but are moved there. They have dual functions, as will be explained, and are thus not “pure complementizers”.

We need to revise our phrase structure rules for both adjunct adverbials (in the VP) and conjunct/disjunct adverbials (in the S) in the following ways to account for adverbial clauses: – ({AdvP, PP, NP, – VP → V S }) S }) S → S ({AdvP, PP, NP – NP Aux VP

.  As discussed in Chapter 5, there is an overlap between many of the forms which function as prepositions and those which function as conjunctions (e.g. since, before, after, until). Note that some complementizers are complex forms incorporating that: except that, given that, provided that, supposing that, assuming that, so that, such that.



Chapter 9.  Finite and nonfinite clauses

We generate adverbial clauses at the end, but like other adverbials, they move fairly freely to the beginning of the sentence. Abridgment of adverbial clauses. Consider the following sentences: 1. 2. 3. 4.

When doing this exercise, keep your hands in front. (COCA:MAG) Though modest in number, the quotes are well chosen. (COCA:MAG) Mark turned into a whirlwind of rage when confronted by dishonesty. (COCA:FIC) Check seasoning and adjust if necessary. (COCA:NEWS)

The underlined sequences express adverbial notions, but they do not seem to be complete clauses. Each sequence begins with a complementizer, but omitted is some form of the verb be as well as tense: in (1) the progressive auxiliary in (2) the main verb in (3) the passive auxiliary, and in (4) the main verb.

The tense omitted is the same as the tense in the main clause. Each underlined clause is also missing a subject. In (1)–(3), the subject omitted is the same as the subject in main clause: “(you) keep your hands in front”, “though the quotes are modest in number”, and “when Mark is confronted by dishonesty”. In (4), an impersonal “it” must be supplied: “if it is necessary”. We therefore analyze these sequences as elliptical adverbial clauses because the subject, tense, and verbal can be supplied from the context (the main clause). We assume that in D-structure these are complete clauses. Ambiguity of modification.  Consider the following sentence: He said when we met he would help me.

It is ambiguous, with two possible interpretations: a. the helping and meeting coincide: He said that when we met he would help me. He said that he would help me when we met. b. the saying and meeting coincide: He said when we met that he would help me. When we met, he said that he would help me. “When we met” is a so-called squinting modifier since it can modify either the preceding clause (“he said”) or the following clause (“he would help me”). In (a) the adverbial –, “would help me”; it clause (“when we met”) is an adjunct adverbial modifying the V is then moved to the beginning of the S which dominates it. In (b) the adverbial clause –, “said that he would help me”; the that-clause is an adjunct adverbial modifying the V

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254 The Linguistic Structure of Modern English

is then moved to the right following the adverbial clause. Study the following trees, which show the two D-structures and the movement of the adverbial clause (shown by arrows): (4)



S NP

Aux

VP

Pro

T

– V

he

past

V

Comp

say

Ø

S NP

Aux

VP

Pro

T

M

he

past

will

– V

– S

Vgp

NP Comp

S

V

Pro when

we met

help

(5)



– S

Vgp

me

S NP

Aux

Pro

T

he

past



VP – V

– S – S

Vgp

Comp

S

when

we met

V

Comp

S

say

Ø

he would help

Self-Testing Exercise: Do Exercise 9.2 on nominal and adverbial clauses.

1.3  Wh-clauses In this section, we will study three types of wh-clauses: 1. wh-questions; 2. relative clauses; and 3. indirect questions. The first is a type of main clause; the second two are types of subordinate clauses.