The Routledge Introductory Course in Biblical Hebrew - Lily Kahn - London - Routledge (2014)
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The Routledge Introductory Course in Biblical Hebrew The Routledge Introductory Course in Biblical Hebrew provides a comprehensive introduction to Biblical Hebrew language and texts. Combining a fresh and innovative approach with an in-depth treatment of the language, it presents the essentials of biblical grammar and vocabulary in an engaging and systematic way. Unlike other Biblical Hebrew courses, it is structured around a series of vibrant and memorable stories, with each story reinforced by grammar explanations, supportive exercises, and a concluding genuine biblical text. This coherent focus encourages students to engage with the text actively and facilitates their mastery of the language to the full. Features include:
forty units covering all the topics expected in a first-year Biblical Hebrew course, including the Hebrew writing system, pointing rules, nouns and adjectives, parsing, mastery of strong and weak verb paradigms and full attention to syntax clear and detailed grammar explanations supported by plentiful examples an extensive assortment of varied and stimulating exercises designed to reinforce new grammar and develop students’ ability to use Biblical Hebrew actively incorporation of a wide range of genuine biblical texts to familiarize students with the main biblical narrative cycles and to equip them with the ability to read authentic meterial from the earliest stages of learning a free companion website (www.routledge.com/cw/kahn) offering a wealth of additional instructor and student resources, including many extra exercises and biblical texts, flashcards to test knowledge, a vocabulary guide listing words by part of speech, a full answer key with translations of all the stories and biblical texts, a sample syllabus and coursework covering the entire contents of the course and audio recordings of the stories and biblical texts coherent chapter organization to consolidate and reinforce learning consistently at each step of the course grammar summary, two-way glossary and subject index presented at the back of the book for easy access a user-friendly text design with original illustrations and clear presentation of the Hebrew script.
Written by an experienced instructor and extensively trialled at UCL, The Routledge Introductory Course in Biblical Hebrew will be an essential resource for all students beginning to learn Biblical Hebrew. Lily Kahn is Lecturer in Hebrew in the Department of Hebrew and Jewish Studies at University College London. Her publications include Colloquial Yiddish (2012), also published with Routledge, and The Verbal System in Late Enlightenment Hebrew (2009).
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The Routledge Introductory Course in Biblical Hebrew Lily Kahn
First published 2014 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2014 Lily Kahn The right of Lily Kahn to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted by her in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record for this book has been requested ISBN: 978-0-415-52479-7 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-415-52480-3 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-85730-5 (ebk) Typeset in Sabon by Graphicraft Limited, Hong Kong
Contents
Acknowledgements
xii
Introduction 1 Introduction to Biblical Hebrew 2 The Hebrew Bible xv 3 About this course xvi
xiv xiv
Unit 1 2 3 4
1 History of the Hebrew writing system Consonants 3 Vowels 7 Handwriting 11
Unit 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
2 Syllables 14 Tone 16 Vowel preferences 17 Shewa (silent and vocal) 18 Dagesh (weak and strong) 20 QameG vs. qameG FaHuf 21 Guttural consonants 22 Quiescent 23
1 1
14
Unit 3
2K_! # T+ ] ! ‘The king and the horse’ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Forming the definite article 27 Use of the definite article 30 Nominal (equational/verbless) sentences Noun–adjective phrases 31 Maqqef 32 Word order in verbal sentences 32 Translating ! ^! 32 Creation, part 1 (Genesis 1:1–13) 34
25 25
31
vi
Contents
Unit 4
36
!k f ] ! ‘The banquet’
1 2 3 4
36 Pointing the conjunction waw 37 Uses of the conjunction waw 40 Prepositions (independent, separable, inseparable) Furtive pataF 45 Creation, part 2 (Genesis 1:14–2:3) 47
41
Unit 5
48
=L1L= # -'X / E ‘Camels and donkeys’ 1 2 3
48
Introduction to nouns 49 Noun gender 49 Noun number (including segolate and geminate nouns) Adam and Eve (Genesis 2:7–22) 60
Unit 6 1 2 3 4
62
-'+ V ! ‘The vessels’ 62 The Biblical Hebrew verbal system 64 The qal qaHal 66 The definite direct object marker ¡=Ơ= Parsing verbs 72 The serpent (Genesis 3:1–14) 74
71
Unit 7 1
!/ % + ] ! ‘The war’ 76 The qal yiqHol 78 Cain and Abel (Genesis 4:2–11)
51
76
84
Unit 8
85
$4 ! ‘The goat’
1 2 3 4
85 The qal wayyiqHol 87 '! ' # introducing temporal clauses 91 'V introducing causal and complement clauses The particle ! ^! # 92 The flood, part 1 (Genesis 6:6–7:19) 94
Unit 9
96
=L1k ] ! ‘The gifts’
1 2 3
96 Forming adjectives 97 + indicating possession 101 Uses of the word +V/¡+V 101 The flood, part 2 (Genesis 8:1–19)
91
103
Contents
Unit 10
104
+L E! ! j ! # 0&d ! ! j ! ‘The small field and the big field’ 1 2 3
vii
Use of adjectives (predicative, attributive, substantive) Parsing adjectives 107 Comparative adjective phrases 107 The tower of Babel (Genesis 11:1–9) 108
104
105
Unit 11
111
0 E! ‘The garden’
1 2 3
111 Demonstrative pronouns 112 Demonstrative adjectives 113 'V as emphatic particle 115 Abraham and Sarah (Genesis 17:15–21:3)
116
Unit 12
117
: C ! ‘The well’
1 2
117 The construct chain 119 Forming the construct state of nouns 120 The binding of Isaac, part 1 (Genesis 22:1–8)
124
Unit 13 1 2
126
+)' ! C 0 '' 0' ‘There’s no wine in the palace’
126
Use of the construct chain 127 The particles f ' and 0' 131 The binding of Isaac, part 2 (Genesis 22:9–17)
133
Unit 14
134
L& + U 1' ' :'% / ‘The price of your wine is not good’ 1 2 3
Possessive suffixes on singular nouns (including mappiq) Use of possessive suffixes 140 'V introducing contrast and temporal clauses 140 Jacob and Esau, part 1 (Genesis 27:1–10) 142
Unit 15 1
144
LC 0 'Q ! :% 2 ‘The wine merchant is a traitor’ Possessive suffixes on plural nouns 146 Jacob and Esau, part 2 (Genesis 27:14–41) 148
Unit 16
': 8 ] ! 0 'Q ! ‘The Egyptian wine’ 1 2
Personal pronouns 152 Gentilic adjectives 153
134 135
144
150 150
viii
3 4 5
Contents
Directive ! 154 Cognate accusative 155 Parsing nouns 155 Jacob and Rachel (Genesis 29:1–20)
157
Unit 17 1 2
159
T+ ] ! ': & f ‘The king’s officers’ 159 Suffixes on prepositions + , C , -4 , = , and definite direct object marker Interrogative ! 163 Jacob, Rachel, and Leah (Genesis 29:21–28)
165
Unit 18 1 2
167
L/ T+ ] / -% + ‘Bread from the King of Moab’ Suffixes on prepositions + , +4 , V , and 0/ 168 Cardinal numerals 170 Joseph and his brothers (Genesis 37:3–34)
1 2 3
180 180
The qal weqaHal 181 Pointing of !/ ‘what’ 184 Conjunctive dagesh 185 The Israelites’ suffering in Egypt (Exodus 1:8–22)
186
Unit 20 1 2 3 4
fG 9 ] + 52 V ‘Money for the temple’ The qal active participle 189 Negating the active participle 194 ! ^! with pronominal suffixes 195 Parsing active participles 195 Moses (Exodus 2:1–10) 198
188 188
Unit 21 1 2 3 4
167
177
Unit 19
T+ ] ! '] 4 & / ‘The king’s delicacies’
161
fG 9 ] ! # 2K_! ‘The horse and the temple’ 200 The qal volitives (cohortative, imperative, jussive) 201 Negative commands with the particle + 204 Masculine singular imperatives with !ß suffix 205 The particle 1 205 The burning bush (Exodus 3:1–10) 206
200
Contents
Unit 22
2K_! ' 3 ‘The horse worshippers’ 1 2 3
209 209
The qal infinitive construct 211 The infinitive construct with subject suffixes 214 Negating the infinitive construct 216 The splitting of the sea (Exodus 14:5–31) 217
Unit 23 1 2
219
' ^! ‘The prophet’ 219 The qal infinitive absolute 221 Purpose clauses with the yiqHol or cohortative Rahab (Joshua 2:1–15) 225
223
Unit 24 1 2 3 4
2K_! :K: ‘The horse is cursed’ 227 The qal passive participle 228 Accents 230 Pausal forms 233 Singular verbs with plural subjects 235 Samson’s wedding, part 1 (Judges 14:1–14)
227
236
Unit 25 1 2
239
T+ ] !¡0 + !i ‘A wife for the prince’ 239 Qal stative verbs 240 Ordinal numerals 244 Samson’s wedding, part 2 (Judges 14:15–19) 247
Unit 26 1 2
249
T+ ] !¡0 C¡= f ‘The prince’s wife’ 249 Object suffixes on verbs (including energic suffixes) 251 Conjunction waw introducing concessive clauses 255 Hannah (1 Samuel 1:1–20) 257
Unit 27
260
L/ Lkf # T+ ] !¡0 C ‘The prince and his wife in Moab’ 1
The nifal 261 The people demand a king (1 Samuel 8:4–19)
:LCC :f +) ! ‘The food in the pit’
260
269
Unit 28 1
ix
272 272
The hifil 274 Samuel anoints David, part 1 (1 Samuel 16:1–7)
281
x
Contents
Unit 29
284
:LCC :f =L/! C ! ‘The beasts in the pit’ 1 2 3
284
The hofal 285 Relative clauses 289 Ketiv/qere 289 Samuel anoints David, part 2 (1 Samuel 16:8–13)
291
Unit 30 1 2
293
L/ T+ ] / ! 1k / ‘A gift from the King of Moab’ The piel 295 Real conditions 300 Solomon’s judgement, part 1 (1 Kings 3:16–22) 303
293
Unit 31 1 2
305
L/ C T+ ] ! ': g ‘The king’s officials in Moab’ 305 The pual 306 Irreal conditions 309 Solomon’s judgement, part 2 (1 Kings 3:23–28) 311
Unit 32 1 2
313
T+ ] ! -L+% ‘The king’s dream’ 313 The hitpael 315 Summary of the seven major stems 321 The Queen of Sheba (1 Kings 10:1–8) 323
Unit 33 1
326
-) % ! ‘The wise man’ 326 I-, II-, and III-guttural roots 327 Elisha and the widow (2 Kings 4:1–7)
332
Unit 34 1 2
335
f C T+ ] ! ‘The king in Sheba’ III- roots 336 Doubly weak roots 337 Jonah, part 1 (Jonah 1:1–6)
335
338
Unit 35 1 2
341
f =V + ] / =L1k / ‘Gifts from the Queen of Sheba’ III-! (originally '/#) roots 342 PetuFa/setuma 346 Jonah, part 2 (Jonah 1:8–2:11)
348
341
Contents
Unit 36 1 2
350
- ': 8 / C 2K_! ‘The horse in Egypt’ I- roots 351 Paragogic 1 352 Ruth, part 1 (Ruth 1:1–7)
350
353
Unit 37 1 2
355
- ': 8 / C T+ ] ! ‘The king in Egypt’ I-1 roots 356 Hapax legomena 359 Ruth, part 2 (Ruth 1:8–16)
355
361
Unit 38 1
363
-'X / E! # 2K_! ‘The horse and the camels’ I-'/# roots 365 Esther, part 1 (Esther 7:1–6)
363
369
Unit 39
371
-': ! C 2K_! ‘The horse in the mountains’ 1 2
Hollow roots 373 The qal passive 378 Esther, part 2 (Esther 7:7–10)
382
-'C : -'X / E ‘Many camels’ Geminate roots 383 Minor stems 387 Daniel (Daniel 1:3–19)
Reference grammar Hebrew–English glossary English–Hebrew glossary Subject index
371
380
Unit 40 1 2
xi
382
390 394 422 437 445
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to the people who have contributed to this book in so many positive ways. I wish to thank Andrea Hartill and Isabelle Cheng at Routledge for their unstinting dedication to the project and for their expert guidance throughout the writing and publication process. I am also very grateful to Geraldine Martin and Helena Power for their great skill and efficiency in the copyediting and production of the volume. I am greatly indebted to Willem Smelik and Sally Gold for introducing me to Biblical Hebrew with such skill and devotion, and to Coralie Gutridge for inspiring me with her verb parsing mnemonic. Special thanks go to Ada Rapoport-Albert for her continual encouragement (as well as for her suggestion that the horse should have a love interest). I also gratefully acknowledge Aaron Rubin, Siam Bhayro, and an anonymous reviewer for their support of this book and for their many helpful comments. I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my Biblical Hebrew students in the Department of Hebrew and Jewish Studies, UCL, who have so kindly class-tested drafts of this textbook over the past few years, providing invaluable feedback and countless insightful contributions. I am extremely grateful to James Holz for the illustrations, as well as for his neverending encouragement, companionship, and numerous excellent suggestions. Finally, I would like to thank Kai Kahn for her constant enthusiasm and support.
Introduction
Contents
Introduction to Biblical Hebrew The Hebrew Bible About this course
1. Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Hebrew is a fascinating language with a rich history spanning 3,000 years. It is a member of the Afro-Asiatic language family, which is a large group of languages spread throughout much of northern Africa and the Middle East. Within this family Hebrew belongs to the Semitic subgroup, which includes many other important ancient languages such as Akkadian (the language of the Babylonian Empire), Aramaic (the language of portions of the Bible and several key biblical translations), Classical Arabic, and Ge‘ez (the language of the Ethiopian Church). The precise origins of Hebrew are not completely clear, but it is thought to have emerged in the Levantine region of Canaan (corresponding roughly to present-day Israel, Palestine, Lebanon, and Syria) in the late second or early first millennium BCE. It is very closely related to other ancient Canaanite dialects then in use in the same region such as Moabite (in present-day Jordan) and Phoenician (the language of a seafaring people from the Canaanite coastal areas). It is also closely related to Ugaritic (from the city-state of Ugarit in modern Syria) and Aramaic (spoken by Aramean tribes in parts of present-day Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Turkey, and Iraq). These languages are known to us from written evidence (clay and stone inscriptions containing e.g. letters, administrative documents, and poetry) from the mid- to late second millennium BCE. These writings reveal these languages to have a high concentration of common features, which has led linguists to classify them together as a subgroup called ‘Northwest Semitic’. We have some evidence of early Hebrew from inscriptions found in the Canaanite region dating from the early first millennium BCE. However, by far the most substantial body of writing in the language is the Hebrew Bible. The texts making up this literary compendium are themselves widely believed to span a period of nearly a thousand years, with the earliest portions possibly dating to as early as 1200 BCE and the latest ones to the last few centuries BCE. The language of these texts is not uniform, but contains many variations that most likely reflect differences in geography, chronology, register, and literary style.
Introduction
xv
Traditionally the language of the Hebrew Bible has been divided into three different types, each reflecting a different phase of biblical history, geography, and/or literary genre. The first type, ‘Archaic Biblical Hebrew’, is made up of certain poetic texts whose linguistic features and style seems to be most clearly rooted in the tradition of more ancient Northwest Semitic languages such as Ugaritic. These texts may date to as early as 1200–900 BCE, though it is possible that they were composed later and that the use of certain archaic elements was a poetic convention outlasting the early historical period. The second type, ‘Standard Biblical Hebrew’, consists of the prose narrative and legal texts of the Pentateuch and Former Prophets (see below), which are believed to date to the so-called ‘monarchic’ or ‘First Temple’ period of ca. 900–586 BCE, when the Israelites had an independent kingdom centred around a temple in Jerusalem. The extent to which this language reflected the spoken idiom of the people is unclear; it may have been a somewhat artificial standard literary language based on the Jerusalem dialect (this can be compared to the concept of ‘the Queen’s English’). The monarchic period ended in ca. 586 BCE when the Babylonian Empire conquered the kingdom, destroyed the Temple, and exiled many of the inhabitants of Jerusalem and the surrounding areas to Babylon. After 537 BCE, when the Babylonian Empire was conquered by Persia, the exiled population was allowed to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the Temple. However, a large diaspora population remained in Babylon and Persia over the next few centuries. The biblical texts written in this ‘Second Temple’ or ‘post-exilic’ period are traditionally categorized as ‘Late Biblical Hebrew’; some of them, e.g. Esther and Daniel (which we will read towards the end of this course), may indicate a Babylonian or Persian setting and a degree of influence from Aramaic (the main language of the Babylonian and Persian empires in the second half of the first millennium BCE) as well as Persian. Alternatively, it is possible that these texts are not all necessarily later than their Standard Biblical Hebrew counterparts, and that many of the linguistic differences may reflect sociological or geographical factors such as the author’s local dialect. The composition of the latest texts included in the biblical canon, which most likely took place in the last few centuries BCE, is considered to mark the end of the biblical phase of Hebrew. The language remained in written use in the centuries immediately following the close of the biblical canon, most prominently in the compendium of Jewish oral law called the Mishna and in rabbinic biblical exegesis called midrash. However, while these texts bear some linguistic similarities to Late Biblical Hebrew, they undeniably represent a very different historical form of the language.
2. The Hebrew Bible The Hebrew Bible is not so much a book as rather a rich compendium of literature spanning almost 1,000 years and including a diverse variety of genres ranging from
xvi
Introduction
dramatic prose narrative to legal codes, prophecy, philosophy, moral guidance, and poetry. Learning to read the Hebrew Bible in the original is a uniquely exciting and rewarding experience because it brings this ancient and yet timeless literary treasurehouse to life with a vividness that no translation can ever capture. This course is designed to provide a sound introduction to some of the key narrative texts of the Hebrew Bible so that, whatever your prior level of experience with biblical stories, you will come away with a solid grounding in its organization and contents, and be able to read and appreciate it independently. The Hebrew Bible is divided into three major sections:
The Pentateuch (also known as the Torah or Five Books of Moses) This section tells the story of the creation of the world and the early history of the Israelite people.
The Prophets This section is divided into the Former Prophets, a narrative chronicle of the preexilic monarchic period, and the Latter Prophets, primarily consisting of poetic texts on prophetic and ethical themes.
The Writings This section contains a diverse mix of texts including both poetry and narrative on a range of historical, ethical, philosophical, and other topics.
Each of these three sections contains a number of individually named books, adding up to twenty-four in total. Each book is divided into chapters, and each chapter is further divided into individual numbered verses. As you progress through this course you will be introduced to many of these books. Check the companion website for a summary of the contents of each biblical book.
3. About this course This course is designed to give the beginning learner a solid grounding in Standard Biblical Hebrew grammar, vocabulary, and texts. It is intended to be used over the course of one academic year, though depending on the setting, pace, and amount of time available it may be spread over two years. It is primarily designed for the classroom, but can be used for self-study as well. By the end of the course the learner will have been familiarized with all of the main points of Biblical Hebrew grammar, have been introduced to the most frequently appearing biblical vocabulary, and have acquired the skills necessary to read the Hebrew Bible independently as well as to progress to intermediate courses and more advanced points of syntax, text-critical, and translation issues.
Introduction
xvii
The course is based around a cycle of graded stories introducing the grammatical points and vocabulary while involving the student in a continuously developing narrative arc. These stories are not based directly on biblical stories, but feature characters and storylines similar to those one would find in the Hebrew Bible. Each story has been designed to present the relevant grammar and vocabulary in a pleasant and memorable way and to make the process of learning Biblical Hebrew painless and enjoyable. Check the companion website for English translations and audio recordings of each story. After each story comes a section explaining the new grammatical points introduced. This is followed by a variety of exercises including transformation and gap-filling tasks, parsing (i.e. grammatically analysing) biblical words, translating English narrative passages into Biblical Hebrew (in the early units, these relate to the introductory stories, but as the course progresses they switch to adaptations of biblical stories), and answering comprehension questions in Biblical Hebrew about the biblical texts at the end of each unit (see below). The exercises are designed to reinforce the language in context, to expose the learner to a wide variety of biblical narratives, and to develop confidence in dealing with authentic texts from a very early stage. Check the companion website for a complete answer key and additional exercises. At the conclusion of each unit, an authentic biblical text is introduced. We will focus on narrative rather than legal or poetic texts, giving learners a clear grounding in some of the most famous stories of the Hebrew Bible in roughly sequential order, starting with the creation story at the beginning of the Pentateuch and continuing through to the books of Esther and Daniel at the end of the Writings. The texts are carefully graded so that in the early units they are heavily abridged (though never rewritten), so as to provide an overview of the story in question without overwhelming the reader with unfamiliar grammar and vocabulary. As the course progresses, the texts gradually increase in complexity and length so that by the middle of the book the reader is studying unadapted biblical narratives, with no changes except the omission of occasional verses to maintain a manageable length. Check the companion website for English translations and audio recordings of each biblical text. The course focuses on Standard Biblical Hebrew prose (though towards the end excerpts from Esther and Daniel give a taste of a somewhat different type of biblical language). This part of the course will not only give learners a good feel for the organization of the Hebrew Bible and close familiarity with a wide selection of key biblical texts and characters, but also the ability to tackle other portions of this endlessly rewarding compendium of writings independently and confidently.
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Unit One
Contents
History of the Hebrew writing system Consonants Vowels Handwriting
1. History of the Hebrew writing system The Hebrew writing system, like the language itself, has a long and fascinating history that can be traced to the beginning of the second millennium BCE. It is likely to derive ultimately from Egyptian hieroglyphs, in which a single word could be represented by a naturalistic picture. For example, this is the Egyptian hieroglyph meaning ‘head’:
This symbol, along with a number of other Egyptian hieroglyphs, is thought to have been adopted by a people speaking a Semitic language, who simplified it to this:
The creators of this writing system, which is called ‘Proto-Sinaitic’, started to use their simplified hieroglyphs not to indicate individual words but rather to denote the first consonant of the word that each hieroglyph had previously represented. Thus, the symbol that had originally meant ‘head’, which sounded something like resh in the
2
Unit One
Semitic language spoken by the writers of Proto-Sinaitic, became generalized to represent not only the word resh, but simply the first consonant of that word, r, wherever it occurred. The original name of each symbol was retained even after it had ceased to represent that word. This Proto-Sinaitic consonantal alphabet is thought to have spread through Canaan and to have been adopted by the speakers of various Semitic languages, where it developed into several variants. One such variant was the Phoenician alphabet, which in turn evolved into the early Hebrew alphabet, called ‘Paleo-Hebrew’. The Phoenician and Paleo-Hebrew alphabets functioned in the same way as their Proto-Sinaitic predecessors, but their symbols were highly simplified and stylized. For example, here’s the Paleo-Hebrew letter resh; it’s still just recognizable as a very basic representation of a head, but it’s much less obvious than the Proto-Sinaitic version.
The Paleo-Hebrew alphabet was written from right to left with no difference between capital and lower case letters. It was probably used to write Hebrew at least until the Babylonian Exile of the early sixth century BCE. In the earliest stages vowels weren’t recorded in writing, but during the course of the First Temple period a few of the consonants started to be used in certain restricted circumstances to indicate the presence of vowels. In the period following the Babylonian Exile many Jews adopted the Aramaic language and began to use its alphabet (which was itself also an offshoot of the Phoenician writing system) to write Hebrew. A variant of this Aramaic alphabet, often called ‘square’ or ‘block’ script, became the standard Hebrew alphabet in the subsequent centuries, and by the early Common Era the Jews had completely abandoned PaleoHebrew. Although they both derived from the same Phoenician ancestor, the shapes of letters in the square script were generally quite different from those of their PaleoHebrew counterparts. For example, our old friend resh took on this appeareance:
: The square script remained primarily consonantal, and as the text of the Hebrew Bible became canonized the writing system could not be adapted directly to introduce systematic vowel letters into the biblical texts. However, in the second half of the first millennium CE various systems consisting of dashes and dots evolved to record vowels
2. Consonants
3
precisely without interfering with the consonantal alphabet already in place. One of these, known as the Tiberian system, became dominant and has remained the chief vehicle for vocalizing biblical texts down to the present day. Since the evolution of the vocalization system it has been possible to read the Hebrew Bible with relative certainty regarding the pronunciation of vowels (the pronunciation of certain vowels, as well as the original consonants, is still disputed in scholarly circles, but this need not worry you at this point!).
2. Consonants Here’s the full consonantal Hebrew alphabet in the square script. There’s some debate concerning the original pronunciation of some of these consonants, and there are varying systems currently in place for pronouncing them. In this course we’ll use the modern Israeli pronunciation, as this is commonly used in many university and other settings around the world and will make it easier for you if you are studying Modern Hebrew as well. Letter
C E 56 7 G 56 7 ! # $ % & '
Name
Pronunciation
alef
silent (see point A below)
bet
b (see point C)
vet
v (see point C)
gimel
g (see point C)
dalet
d (see point C)
he
h as in ‘house’ at end of word: silent (see point A)
waw
v (may originally have sounded like w) silent (see point A)
zayin
z
Fet
ch as in ‘Bach’*,†
Het
t
yod
y silent (see point A)
4
Letter
V ) ( + / 1 0 2 3 a 6 5 8 7 9 : g f k 56 =7
Unit One
Name
Pronunciation
kaf
k (see point C)
khaf
ch as in ‘Bach’ (see points C and D)
final khaf
ch as in ‘Bach’ (appears at end of word only; see points B and D)
lamed
l
mem
m
final mem
m (appears at end of word only; see point B)
nun
n
final nun
n (appears at end of word only; see point B)
samekh
s
ayin
silent (see point A)
pe
p
fe
f
final fe
f (appears at end of word only; see point B)
Gadi
ts as in cats
final Gadi
ts as in cats (appears at end of word only; see point B)
qof
k (see point D)
resh
r (guttural, as in German or Modern Hebrew)
sin
s (see point D)
shin
sh
taw
t (see points C and D)
%
!
!
* If it’s hard to tell from , try this memory aid: they both have the shape of a house, but has a hole in the side. † The consonants Fet, Het, and Gadi are commonly transliterated into the Roman alphabet by means of a letter with a dot underneath.
2. Consonants
5
Some consonants require more explanation: A. Silent letters
3
The letters and were originally pronounced as consonants but are silent in was originally a glottal stop. (If you pronounce the the Israeli pronunciation. was English ‘uh-oh’, the sound you hear between the two words is a glottal stop.) a pharyngeal sound, similar to a glottal stop but pronounced in a slightly different place in the throat. Although they’re now silent, they’re still considered consonants just like all the others. In addition, , , and are silent in certain circumstances. We’ll examine this point in Unit 2.
!#
3
'
B. Final forms The following five letters have a special form (called final) when appearing at the end of a word: Final form
Standard form
T 0 5 7
) / 1 6 8
Points to note: There’s no difference in pronunciation between these final letters and their non-final equivalents; it’s simply a historical quirk of the alphabet. The symbol , which is called shewa (and will be discussed in depth in . This is Unit 2, Grammar point 4), is typically added to final , i.e. purely a convention of the writing system and has no effect on pronunciation. It may be helpful to note that , , , and look a bit as if the lower half of the standard form has been flattened out so that it extends downwards, looks as though the standard form has been squashed into a box while shape.
ß
(
T05
-
7
T-
6
Unit One
C. Begadkefat letters The following six consonants have two variants, one with a dot (called a dagesh) in the middle and one without: With dagesh
Without dagesh
C E G V a k
) 6 =
These six pairs of consonants are called begadkefat letters (the name is an acronym composed of the six consonants with dagesh). Originally the dagesh was used to indicate a difference in pronunciation between the two otherwise identical letters. However, in modern Israeli pronunciation the distinction is preserved in only three of the pairs: vs , vs , and vs , while the other pairs are pronounced identically. This is all you need to know for now, but we’ll examine the dagesh again more thoroughly in Unit 2.
C V )
a 6
D. Consonants with identical pronunciations The following pairs of consonants have identical pronunciations: Consonants
, # %, ), T &, k, = V, 9 2, g
Pronunciation v ch as in ‘Bach’ t k s
This phenomenon can be attributed to changing pronunciation in the history of Hebrew: originally, each of these pairs of consonants represented different sounds, but in modern Israeli pronunciation these differences have been lost. Unfortunately, this means
3. Vowels
7
that there’s a certain degree of rote memorization required when learning words containing one of these consonants.
3. Vowels A. Matres lectionis As discussed above, the Hebrew alphabet originally indicated only consonants but then started using the letters , , and in certain cases as approximate vowel markers. This still wasn’t very clear, but narrowed it down a bit. Let’s look at an example, a word meaning ‘instruction’ or ‘law’ that at an early stage of Hebrew would theoretically have been spelled as follows (though at that point of course the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet would most likely have been used):
!#
'
:= This spelling could have represented a large variety of sounds including tar, tir, tor, tur, tore, tora, tura, etc., which would be frustrating for a reader. (You may be experiencing a bit of that frustration now, as unless you already recognize this word you can have no way of knowing how to read it – but don’t worry; by the end of this unit the correct pronunciation will be revealed!) to However, by adding to represent a vowel in the middle of the word and represent the final vowel, you get this:
#
!
!:#= This would have made it easier to read the word because now it was clear that the vowel in the middle was o or u (the sounds closest to the sound w, which may have been the original consonantal value of ) while the one at the end was e or a, which are the vowels that seem to be closest to h, the consonantal value of . There was still some ambiguity, but at least now the choice was only between tora, tore, tura, and ture. Each of these consonantal vowel markers is called a mater lectionis (‘mater’ for short; plural matres lectionis). The term is Latin for ‘mother of reading’ (because they help you to read!). The development of the matres lectionis was the first step towards a vowel notation system. However, it wasn’t a perfect system as a) it wasn’t precise enough to indicate all vowels systematically, and b) it was used inconsistently within the biblical text, i.e. in one instance a word may appear with a mater lectionis while in another instance it may not. When a mater lectionis appears in a word, the word is said to be spelled plene (Latin for ‘fully’), whereas when it is absent the same word is said to be spelled defectively. Therefore, modifications to this arrangement were
#
!
8
Unit One
required in order to ensure that the biblical text could be read accurately and consistently. These modifications arose in the form of the pointing system. B. Pointing
394 See Reference grammar A1 for summary
The Tiberian vocalization system is a complete method for recording Hebrew vowel sounds. However, it has some complexities of its own, so don’t worry if aspects seem confusing at first – you’ll soon get used to them. According to this system, Hebrew has five basic vowels: a, e, i, o, and u (like Spanish or Italian). However, these basic vowels fit into four separate categories, which are labelled in terms of length: short vowels, reduced vowels, tone-long vowels, and vowels with matres lectionis. Each vowel has its own name. It might seem confusing and inconvenient to have to learn the names for all of these vowels, but they’re actually very important because they will play a big role in many aspects of Hebrew grammar and will therefore be referred to again and again throughout this course. So make the effort to get to know them now and it will quickly start to pay off! Let’s start with the short vowels, which are as follows (the circle represents a consonant, as each vowel symbol is inserted either above or below the consonant that it follows when the word is pronounced). Note that each vowel is pronounced after the consonant that it points (appears below or above), never before. You’ll see that the first row, labelled ‘vowel class’, lists only three vowels (a, i, and u), and that all five vowels are grouped under these three headings. This is because at a very early stage in the development of the Semitic languages there seem to have been only three vowels: a, i, and u, and the other two vowels seem to have been offshoots of these original three. This is not immediately important for us, but will become relevant later when we are looking at various aspects of Biblical Hebrew grammar, so you can ignore the point for now but come back to it at a later date. Short vowels Vowel class
A
Sound (approximate)
a
e
i
o
u
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
pataF
segol
Fireq
qameG FaHuf
qibbuG
Symbol Name
I
U
Next, here are the reduced vowels. These are easy to remember once you’ve learned the short vowels – they’re identical to the short vowels, except that shewa (the symbol ) has been added to the right-hand side. Shewa is actually itself considered a reduced vowel and can be used independently to point a consonant, indicating a very short e
ß
3. Vowels
9
sound like the e in the English word ‘begin’. In fact, the reduced vowels are also often referred to as ‘composite shewas’. (We’ll look at the shewa in more detail in Unit 2, Grammar point 4.) These reduced vowels are pronounced exactly like their short equivalents. Don’t worry now about when and why they’re used instead of the short vowels; for now just memorize them, and we’ll soon come back to them. Note that there’s no reduced equivalent of Fireq or qibbuG. Reduced vowels Vowel class
A
Sound (approximate)
a
e
i
o
u
ß
ß
—
ß
—
FaHef pataF
FaHef segol
—
FaHef qameG
—
Symbol Name
I
U
Now let’s look at the tone-long vowels. Again, you may be wondering what the difference is between these vowels and their short or reduced equivalents. In the Tiberian system, there would have been a difference in length or pronunciation between the tone-long and short vowels. However, in modern Israeli pronunciation both sets are pronounced identically, i.e. qameG is pronounced the same as its short counterpart pataF. This can be frustrating for the learner because it makes the difference between long and short vowels seem annoyingly arbitrary, but don’t worry – soon you’ll learn some patterns that will help you remember which type of vowel is used where. Tone-long vowels Vowel class
A
Sound (approximate)
a
e
i
o
u
ß
ß
—
ߥ
—
qameG
Gere
—
Folem
—
Symbol Name
I
U
In addition, note two important points about the tone-long vowels:
There’s no such thing as a tone-long i or u sound. The same symbol, , is used to represent two completely different sounds: you were first introduced to it as short o, but now you’ve seen that it can also be used to represent tone-long a. Don’t worry about this for now – in Unit 2 you’ll be given an easy guideline for recognizing which sound it represents in any given word. Until then, just assume that every time you see this symbol it represents the tone-long vowel qameG.
ß
10
Unit One
Finally, let’s look at the group consisting of vowel symbol plus mater lectionis. These are vowels that had a mater lectionis in the consonantal script from an early point in the history of written Hebrew. When the Masoretes added vocalization to these words, the vocalization was actually more precise than the mater lectionis, and thereby can be thought of as having made the mater lectionis redundant. Let’s look back at our . The Masoretes added a Folem and qameG (as well as a earlier example of dagesh) to the initial begadkefat consonant , resulting in the precisely vocalized form . Because the vocalization is so specific, one could in theory now leave out the , which would be just as clear. two matres lectionis, and simply spell the word However, since the Hebrew Bible was by that period already a canonized sacred text, the consonants could not be changed, so the Masoretes left the matres lectionis intact. This resulted in a series of vowels consisting of a combination of a tone-long (or, more rarely, short) vowel and one of the three matres lectionis , , or .
!:#=
=
!:Lk
: k
!#
'
Vowels with matres lectionis Vowel class
A
Sound (approximate)
a
e/ey
i
o
u
!ß
'ß !ß 'ß !ß
'ß
L !ߥ
K
qameG-he
Gere-yod Gere-he segol-yod segol-he
Fireq-yod
Folem-waw Folem-he
shureq
Symbol
Name
I
U
Points to note: None of these vowels may appear at the beginning of a word. Combinations with and may appear in the middle or at the end of a word. Combinations with may appear only at the end of a word. Combinations with and are often referred to as historically long or unchangeably long, for reasons that will become clear in the next few units. In Israeli pronunciation these vowels are usually pronounced the same as their tone-long, short, and reduced counterparts. However, the vowels and usually have the sound ey (as in the English
# ' ! # ' 'ß
'ß
‘hey!’), which is actually a diphthong (a combination of two different vowels) rather than a simple vowel.
4. Handwriting
11
!# '
You may now be wondering how you can tell whether a given , , or is functioning as a consonant or mater lectionis on any given occasion. In almost all cases, there’s a very simple way to work this out. i.
!
ii.
!:Lk
!
'
iii.
If it’s at the end of a word and is not pointed, then it’s functioning as a ‘instruction’; ‘law’. mater lectionis, e.g. Otherwise, it’s a consonant. ( appears as a consonant at the end of a word only very rarely; this will be explained in Unit 14.)
-'
If it’s pointed, e.g. ‘sea’, or followed by a vowel with mater lectionis, e.g. ‘day’, then it’s functioning as a consonant. If it’s not pointed or followed by a vowel with mater lectionis, e.g. ‘who’, then it’s functioning as a mater lectionis.
-L'
'/
#
-' #
If it’s pointed with an A-class vowel, I-class vowel, or shewa, e.g. ‘and ‘his father’, a sea’, or appears unpointed at the end of a word, e.g. then it’s functioning as a consonant. If it’s pointed as and has no other vocalization, then it’s the vowel/mater lectionis combination shureq. If it’s pointed with Folem, there’s some potential for confusion because the same symbol could theoretically be a consonantal pointed with Folem. However, in practice this is almost never a problem because the vowel/mater lectionis combination is always directly preceded by an unpointed con, which indicates that the Folem-waw is serving as sonant, as in that consonant’s only vowel. If the were functioning as a consonant pointed with Folem, the preceding consonant would have to have its own vowel, e.g. ‘sin’.
#'
K
#
!:Lk
#
0L4
4. Handwriting Learning to write Biblical Hebrew is very straightforward. Here are the slightly simplified forms of the block consonants conventionally used in handwriting; use the chart to learn the correct way of forming the letters and then practise copying them out
12
Unit One
until they become familiar. (The pointing is even easier as you can just copy the dots and dashes without the need for special practice!)
Exercises 1.
Read the following common Biblical Hebrew words out loud, pronouncing them and naming the letters. Translations are given for each word. This and subsequent exercises are printed from right to left to help you get into the habit of reading Hebrew in the correct direction.
Check your answers to this and all subsequent exercises in the key on the companion website. Check the companion website for flashcard quizzes on this and all subsequent units.
Exercises
2K2 ‘town’; ‘city’ :'4 ‘palace’; ‘temple’ +)'! ‘who’ '/ ‘field’ ! g ‘mountain’ :! ‘near’; ‘next to’ +8 ‘gold’ ! $ ‘man’ f' ‘big’ +L E ‘horse’
2.
Copy the words from exercise 1 in handwriting.
13
.1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 .10
Unit Two
Contents
Syllables Tone Vowel preferences Shewa (silent and vocal) Dagesh (weak and strong) QameG vs. qameG FaHuf Guttural consonants Quiescent
In this unit we’ll look at a few other essential features of the Hebrew writing system, while at the same time learning some key vocabulary and characters in preparation for starting to read Hebrew texts in Unit 3.
1. Syllables A. Types of syllable Hebrew words, like their English counterparts, can be broken into smaller units of pronunciation called syllables. For example, the English word ‘horse’ has one syllable, while the word ‘city’ can be divided into two, ci- and -ty. The way that words are divided into syllables differs from language to language, and within languages there may be different types of syllables with different combinations of consonants and vowels. In Hebrew, there are very clear rules determining how words are divided into syllables. It’s vitally important that you start to understand and learn how to apply these rules now, because much of the grammar that we’ll be looking at throughout this course is affected by them. Here they are:
All syllables (with only one exception!) begin with a consonant (as opposed to pointing or a mater lectionis). All syllables must have one vowel or diphthong. A syllable may end with a consonant or a vowel (i.e. pointing or a mater lectionis).
1. Syllables
15
When you take all of these rules into account, it means that there are only two kinds of Hebrew syllables: i. ii.
Open syllables: syllables consisting of a consonant + vowel/diphthong Closed syllables: Syllables consisting of a consonant + vowel/diphthong + consonant.
Let’s look at each of these in turn. i.
Open syllables (consonant + vowel/diphthong) It’s easy to remember why this type of syllable is called ‘open’ if you think of it like this: there’s nothing blocking in or protecting the vowel at the end of the syllable; it can run away or keep stretching out as long as it likes because there’s no ‘what’ is an example of an open syllable: consonant closing it in! The word . (Even it consists of the consonant , followed by the historically long vowel is sometimes a consonant, it’s functioning here as a mater lectionis and though therefore counts as a vowel.) Closed syllables (consonant + vowel/diphthong + consonant) Again, the name gives you a fitting description for this type of syllable. For example, look at the following word, which means ‘horse’:
/
!
ii.
!/
!ß
2K2
2 2
This word is a closed syllable that starts with the consonant followed by the historically long vowel , and then ‘closes’ with the consonant . Think of the final consonant as a lid or wall that closes off the syllable, ensuring that the vowel in the middle can’t escape!
K
B. Words with more than one syllable These words we’ve just looked at are easy because they’re monosyllabic (they have only one syllable), so all you have to do is decide whether it’s open or closed. However, many words in Hebrew have more than one syllable, so you have to know how to
16
Unit Two
divide them into different syllables. Keeping in mind the rules we’ve just looked at, this will be easy. For example, look at the following word, which means ‘king’:
T+ /
This word is composed of two syllables. The first one,
/ , is an open syllable consist-
/ and the short vowel ß . The second is a closed syllable consisting of the consonant +, the short vowel ß , and the final ‘closing’ consonant T. So we ing of the consonant
can divide the word into syllables like this:
T+ Ơ / By contrast, a word might have two open syllables, e.g. as follows:
!:Lk , which can be divided
!: Ơ Lk 2. Tone A. Tonic syllables Along with syllable types, another important feature of Biblical Hebrew is tone (also called stress or accent, i.e. the syllable that is emphasized when you pronounce the word). In English the syllable with the tone can vary from word to word, e.g. palace, pronounce, imagination. In Hebrew, by contrast, the tone is typically on the final ‘gold’. The syllable with the tone is known, logically, as tonic. syllable, as in However, in some cases the tone may be on the penultimate (second-to-last) syllable,
! $
3. Vowel preferences
17
T+ / ‘king’. In this course it is assumed that the final syllable is tonic; when this is not the case, the tonic syllable will be marked with the symbol ß . For example, the word T+ / will be written as T+ / . If you don’t see ß , it means that the tone is e.g.
on the final syllable, as expected.
N
ß
ote that is a learning aid only; it’s not actually used to indicate non-final tone in authentic biblical texts.
B. Pretonic and propretonic syllables Hebrew syllables have different labels depending on where they are in relation to the tone. The syllable immediately before the tonic syllable is called, sensibly, pretonic, while the one before that is called propretonic. Any syllables even farther away from the tone are also propretonic (though some grammarians label them distant). Conversely, syllables following the tone are called posttonic, but these are comparatively uncommon. Hebrew words rarely have more than three or four syllables, so you won’t usually have to deal with more than one or two propretonic syllables in the same word.
- + fK: '
, meaning ‘Jerusalem’, which This labelling system is illustrated in the word has five syllables (the most you’ll ever have to deal with by far!). Note that the final syllable is spelled defectively, without (resulting in an unusual situation whereby Fireq appears on the right side of the final mem and is pronounced before it, i.e. -im).
'
1
2
3
4
5
[
+
f
K:
'
posttonic
tonic
pretonic
propretonic
propretonic (or distant)
3. Vowel preferences
395 See Reference grammar A2 for summary
You may be wondering why it’s so important to know how to divide and label syllables right now! One of the reasons this is necessary is because different vowels are found in different types of syllables, and this will have significant implications for the pointing system as well as many grammatical issues. Here’s a basic reference list of which types of syllables the different vowels may be found in. Don’t feel that you have to absorb it all at once, but keep it in mind as you’ll be coming back to these points time and again throughout the course.
18
Unit Two
A.
B.
C.
Tone-long vowels prefer: i.
Open or closed tonic syllables, e.g.
ii.
Open pretonic syllables, e.g.
! $, !:Lk
! $
Short vowels prefer: i.
Unstressed closed syllables, e.g.
ii.
Open tonic syllables, e.g.
T+ /
T+ /
Reduced vowels and vocal shewa prefer: Open propretonic syllables, e.g.
- + fK: '
D. Historically long vowels can be found in any type of syllable.
4. Shewa
395 See Reference grammar A3 for summary
Now we’ll look at another important feature of the Hebrew writing system, the , called shewa. The shewa is used to perform two different functions, symbol and actually has two different names depending on the function. We’ll look at each type of shewa in turn.
ß
A. Silent shewa The first type of shewa is called the silent shewa. The name describes its function, as it’s used to signal the absence of a vowel. As such, it appears at the end of a closed syllable, pointing a consonant directly preceded by a short vowel. It’s typically found in the middle of a word, but in certain cases it appears at the end; one of these is in the final consonant , as you’ve seen, and you’ll meet the others later in the course. Look at the following word, which means ‘queen’: This word clearly illustrates this function of the silent
T
+
shewa: it points the , which is immediately preceded by the short vowel pataF. The shewa is telling us that this is indeed the end of the syllable and there’s no vowel here.
!V + /
4. Shewa
19
B. Vocal shewa The second type of shewa is called vocal. Again, the name reveals something of its function: in contrast to its silent counterpart, this one is actually a vowel sound. Historically it’s a very short e sound as in the e in the English word ‘begin’. However, just to complicate matters, in modern Israeli pronunciation the vocal shewa is not usually pronounced, making it identical to the silent shewa as far as sound is concerned. This means that you have to learn a few rules so that you’ll be able to identify vocal shewas with confidence. The vocal shewa behaves in the opposite way from the silent shewa in that it appears only in open syllables. It can appear in four different places within a word: i.
Beginning of word
- + fK: '. As you saw above, this word can be divided into five syllables, [ + f K: '; the vocal shewa is pointing the first Consider the word
ii.
syllable, which is open. After long vowel Look at the following word, which means ‘judges’ and appears frequently in the Hebrew Bible:
-'& 6 f This word can be divided into three syllables:
-'& Ơ 6 Ơ f You may be wondering how it’s possible to tell that the first syllable is open and
f
6 f
ends after the rather than being closed and ending after , with the shewa marking the end of the closed syllable. If you look back to the list of vowel
f
preferences, you’ll find the answer: the Folem pointing the initial consonant is a long vowel (in this case it’s actually historically long, but spelled defectively so it looks as if it’s tone-long), and as you can see from the list, long vowels usually avoid closed syllables that aren’t tonic. Therefore, by process of elimination, the shewa must be vocal, and as such is part of its own open syllable. iii. After silent shewa As a rule, whenever you see two shewas in a row, the first one is silent and the second one is vocal. (In fact, the Masoretic pointing conventions don’t allow for the existence of two vocal shewas next to each other – more on this
- + fK: ' =L%a f / ‘the families of Jerusalem’: the first shewa in =L%a f / is silent, closing the
later!) You can see an example of this in the phrase
20
Unit Two
first syllable, while the second one is vocal, representing the vowel in the open syllable . Pointing strong dagesh (see below)
a
iv.
5. Dagesh
395 See Reference grammar A4 for summary
The dagesh, like the shewa, has two variants, each of which has its own function and name. (The Masoretes developed an excellent vocalization system, but their penchant for using the same symbol to serve two different functions can be very frustrating for students!) The two variants are called the weak dagesh and strong dagesh, and they’re used in quite different circumstances: the weak dagesh appears only in the six pairs of begadkefat letters, while the strong dagesh can be found in almost any letter. Let’s look at each type of dagesh in more detail. A. Weak dagesh The weak dagesh (also called by its Latin name, dagesh lene) appears as a rule in each when the letter isn’t following a of the six begadkefat letters , , , , , and vowel, i.e. in one of the following two positions:
CEGVa
k
52 V Directly following a silent shewa, e.g. !V + /
i.
At the beginning of a word, e.g.
ii.
Conversely, a begadkefat letter directly following a vowel doesn’t take the weak dagesh,
+)' ! .
e.g.
T
his principle often applies to begadkefat letters at the beginning of a word when that word follows another word ending in a vowel, e.g.
+L E ! g
+L ! g ‘a big field’
instead of . This convention isn’t invariable, so just be aware that you’ll encounter it when reading biblical texts but that it’s not universal. (It’s actually governed by rules, but you don’t need to learn them at this stage.)
B. Strong dagesh The strong dagesh (also known by the Latin term dagesh forte), in contrast to its weak counterpart, can appear in any consonant except , , , , and .1 Its function
!%3
1
:
Strong dagesh does actually appear in some of these letters on very rare occasions in the Hebrew Bible, but these are anomalies that need not concern you now.
6. Qames vs. qames hatuf ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
21
is very different from that of the weak dagesh: it indicates that the consonant in which it appears is doubled (pronounced for twice as long as a single consonant). Doubled consonants occur sometimes in English: for example, say ‘unnatural’ out loud and then ‘a natural’: you’ll see that the n sound in ‘unnatural’ is actually held for longer. However, in modern Israeli pronunciation doubling has been lost, and therefore, as in the case of the long and short vowels, and vocal and silent shewa, the difference between a consonant with a strong dagesh and one without it is impossible to hear. This means that you just have to memorize whether a given consonant in a given word takes a strong dagesh. On the bright side, though, in most cases deciding whether a given dagesh is strong or weak is very simple: if you see a dagesh in a letter that’s not begadkefat, it must be , which means ‘the horse’ (it’s just the familiar word strong. Take the example with a prefix added to it; we’ll look at this in Unit 3). As soon as you see the is not a begadkefat letter. dagesh in the , you know it has to be strong because Originally, then, the word would have been pronounced as if it had two samekhs in a . row, i.e. This illustrates another important point: since a consonant with strong dagesh is doubled, that means that it’s actually part of two syllables: the consonant is only written once, but adding the strong dagesh is a shorthand way of indicating the presence of two identical consonants there. The first of these doubled consonants closes the previous Ơ . This syllable, while the second one forms a separate, open syllable, like this: is why, referring back to point iv of the previous section, a shewa pointing a consonant with strong dagesh must be vocal: it serves as the vowel of this open syllable. Note therefore that the strong dagesh doesn’t usually appear at the beginning or end of a word. (There are a few exceptions to this rule, but they will be pointed out later.) The only situation where it may not be so immediately obvious which type of dagesh you’re dealing with is in a begadkefat letter. Begadkefat letters can be doubled just like other consonants, which means that theoretically the dagesh in a given begadkefat letter could be strong instead of weak. However, there’s a very simple guideline for distinguishing the two:
2K2
2K_!
2 2K22 !
2
2K2 2 !
52 V !
‘the A dagesh in a begadkefat letter is strong if it follows a vowel, e.g. silver’; ‘the money’. Note that this is the exact opposite of the situations in which a weak dagesh is found.
6. QameU vs. qameU TaVuf Now that you know about syllable structure it’s time to learn an easy way to distinguish the identical-looking symbols qameG and qameG FaHuf. There are only two contexts in which you’ll find qameG FaHuf:
22
Unit Two
A. Closed unstressed syllables
ß
The symbol is invariably qameG FaHuf when it appears in a closed, unstressed sylin the first syllable of the word ‘wisdom’, lable. An example of this is the Ơ . which divides into two syllables as follows:
ß
!/ ) %
!/ ) %
B. Immediately preceding tavef qameu An example of this is the ship’.
ß pointing the first syllable of the word ! Q 1 C ‘in a
I
n all other cases the symbol is the tone-long vowel qameG.
7. Guttural consonants The following four Hebrew consonants form a special class called gutturals:
!
%
3
:
In addition, is considered a ‘half’-guttural in that it has some of the special properties of the other gutturals, but not all. The gutturals have the following characteristics that distinguish them from other consonants:
They can’t be doubled, i.e. they never appear with strong dagesh (this applies to as well as the other gutturals).2 They can’t be pointed with vocal shewa. Instead, they may be pointed with one of the reduced vowels. (You can think of the reduced vowels as variants of vocal shewa designed specially for the unreasonable, demanding gutturals, which won’t accept the normal vocal shewa like the other, more agreeable, consonants. In this case doesn’t behave like a guttural, as it’s happy to be pointed with vocal shewa, ‘city square’). e.g. They often prefer to be pointed with A-class vowels (don’t worry about this point too much for now, but it will become relevant later).
:
: L%:
2
As mentioned above, there are a very few exceptions to this rule, but don’t worry about them now!
Exercises
8. Quiescent
23
Although the consonant is not usually considered a mater lectionis, often when appearing at the end of a syllable it quiesces (becomes silent), meaning that it has no pointing and is not considered a consonant for syllabification purposes. You can see
K+) Q #
‘and they ate’. If a word ending in quiescent (silent) is this in the word directly followed by another word beginning with a begadkefat letter, the weak dagesh is not considered a is often left out of the begadkefat letter because the quiescent consonant. You can see this in the following phrase, meaning ‘a large throne’:
+L _ V
Exercises 1.
Go back to Unit 1, Exercise 1 and divide each of the words into syllables, noting how many syllables there are and whether each syllable is open or closed.
2.
Read the following words and decide whether the shewa in each word is vocal or silent.
! $ # f / ‘banquet’ !k ‘table’ 0% + f ‘very’ / ‘kings’ -') + / : ‘wicked men’ -'4 f / ‘family’ !% a f ‘and gold’
.1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7
24
3.
Unit Two
Read the following words and decide whether each dagesh (there may be more than one in a word) is weak or strong.
!i ‘son’ 0C f / ‘banquet’ !k / ‘family’ !% a f E ‘camels’ -'X / ! ‘the table’ 0% + i ! ‘the king’ T+ ] ‘inside of’ TL=C ‘the day’ -LQ! ‘where’ ! Q
‘woman’; ‘wife’
.1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 .10
Unit Three
Contents
2K_! # T+ ] ! ‘The king and the horse’ The definite article Nominal (equational/verbless) sentences Noun–adjective phrases Maqqef Word order in verbal sentences Translating Creation, part 1 (Genesis 1:1–13)
! ^!
Below is the first of the stories that will introduce each unit. You can see by looking quickly at the story that Biblical Hebrew doesn’t have punctuation such as commas, full stops, question marks, etc. Instead, you can see the symbol appearing periodically throughout the text. This symbol is called sof pasuq (meaning ‘end of verse’). In the Hebrew Bible it’s used to mark the end of a verse and can be thought of as roughly equivalent to a full stop, though in some cases it may be more similar to a comma, semicolon, question mark, or exclamation mark. This means that you’ll have to work out its exact sense depending on the context in which it appears. The sof pasuq is the only biblical punctuation symbol you need to know for now; later in the course you’ll be introduced to the others.
ª
2K_! # T+ ] ! :'4 -f # 04 1 V 7: C +L E :! '! ' # +)' ! ! '! ' # :'4 ! +8 +)' ! '! ' # +)' ! ! TL=C f' '! ' # ª / +L E ¡+4 f ' T+ ] ! # T+ / f' ! '! ' # '! ' # +)' ! ! +8 ! g '! ' # ª / +L _ V ! '! ' # ª_ V ! ^! 2K_! :/ Q # ª! j ! TL=C 2K2 '! ' # ª / 0&9 ! j ! TL=C f ' ' 1 # +L E +)' ! TL=C +L _ V¡+ 4 f ' T+ ] ! ª9 c ! ! Q 0&9 ! g
26
Unit Three
Vocabulary the (prefixed to the following word)* the king* and; but; whereas (prefixed to the following word; see Unit 4, Grammar point 2) the horse* 1. 2.
and there was a . . . (before indefinite noun, i.e. noun prefix) without prefix or name and (the) ___ was . . . (before noun with of a person/place) (surprisingly, the shewa in this word is vocal; this oddity will be explained in Units 30 and 35)
!
big in (prefixed to the following word; see Unit 4, Grammar point 3)
Canaan in the land of Canaan there city; a city palace; a palace (also: temple) near; next to the city* the palace* very man; a man in the middle of; inside (of) (also: among)
2K_! '! ' #
!
mountain; a mountain
land (also: earth; ground)
! T+ ] ! #
:! +L E C 7: 04 1 V 04 1 V 7: C -f :'4 +)' ! +8 :'4 ! +)' ! ! / f' TL=C
1. Forming the definite article
middle of; inside of the man* sitting on (also: upon; over; about; against; because of) (joined to following word by maqqef )† throne; a throne the throne* field; a field the field* small horse; a horse and he said look; you see (traditionally translated as ‘behold’)‡ and/but I (see Unit 4, Grammar point 1) where the justice
27
TLk f' ! f ' ¡+4 _ V _ V ! ! g ! j ! 0&9 2K2 :/ Q # ! ^! ' 1 # ! Q 9 c !
* See Grammar point 1. † See Grammar point 5. ‡ See Grammar point 7.
Grammar points 1. Forming the definite article
396 See Reference grammar A5 for summary
Hebrew doesn’t have an indefinite article (a word equivalent to the English ‘a’ or ‘an’). may mean ‘horse’ or ‘a horse’, depending on the context. Therefore, the word However, it does have a definite article (the equivalent of the English ‘the’). The Hebrew definite article is not a word but rather a prefix that gets attached to the
2K2
28
Unit Three
word to which it relates. You’ve seen many examples of this in the story, e.g.
2K_! , T+ ] ! , _ V ! , ! j ! , f' ! , +)' ! ! , :'4 ! . From this you can see the definite article consists of ! pointed with pataF or qameG and that this is prefixed directly to the following word. However, you can also see that the precise form varies depending on the word, and furthermore that there are some words in whose first consonant a strong dagesh has appeared following the definite article. These differences are all very predictable and can be summarized in a few rules: A. Default rule
!
prefix is pointed with pataF and a strong dagesh is inserted in In most cases, the the word’s first consonant. Many scholars believe that the original form of the definite assimilated (was absorbed) into the first article was *han-,1 and that the original consonant of the following word, causing it to double. (In Biblical Hebrew it’s actually very common for to assimilate into the following consonant in this way, as you’ll see throughout the course, so this hypothesis is quite logical.)
1
1
_ V !
←
the throne
! j ! the field
←
_ V
2K_!
throne
the horse
! g
T+ ] !
field
the king
2K2
←
horse
T+ /
←
king
Point to note: If a word begins with a begadkefat letter, the initial weak dagesh changes to a strong dagesh when the definite article is added, since it’s now preceded by a vowel. However, this difference is completely theoretical: there’s no actual pointing change, as the weak and strong dagesh look and sound identical! The main exceptions to the default rule consist of words beginning with a guttural consonant. This is because gutturals can’t double, so the default pattern won’t work. Instead, we get one of two alternative patterns, which also introduce us to two important principles of Hebrew pointing that will occur over and over again throughout the course. B. Words beginning with
, 3, or : 3 :
When the definite article is prefixed to words beginning with , , or , the expected strong dagesh is omitted (because, as you saw in Unit 2, gutturals can’t double). This
1
The * symbol indicates a reconstructed form in a (hypothetical) earlier language.
1. Forming the definite article
29
means that we can’t point the definite article with the expected pataF, because that would result in a short vowel in an open, unstressed syllable, which violates the rules of vowel preferences (check the vowel preferences list in Unit 2, Grammar point 3 for a reminder of these). Instead, we compensate for the lack of a strong dagesh by lengthening the vowel to qameG, which in contrast to pataF is perfectly happy to appear in an open unstressed syllable. This phenomenon is called, quite sensibly, compensatory lengthening.
f:!
←
f:
:'4 !
head
the city
the head
←
:'4
f' !
city
the man
←
f' man
! or % Words beginning with ! or % can’t take a strong dagesh in their first consonant either. However, instead of compensating for this by lengthening the pataF of the definite article to qameG, these words are prefixed by ! just like their non-guttural counterparts
C. Words beginning with
even though there’s no doubling. This phenomenon is known by the delightful label virtual doubling. This label is a good description of the phenomenon: it’s as if we’re pretending that the first consonant is doubled, because otherwise we would be faced with the disturbing reality of a short vowel, pataF, in an unstressed open syllable. Since this should not be allowed, we just choose to live in a virtual reality world of denial: we imagine that the guttural is doubled, even though it’s not, and carry on as if nothing odd had happened!
f % ! the month
←
f %
+)' ! !
month
the palace
←
+)' ! palace
I
n order to remember which gutturals follow rule B and which follow rule C, and , follow think of it like this: gutturals that have the shape of a house, i.e. pattern C (in other words, the houses have a virtual strong dagesh in their living room); the other three follow pattern B.
!
D. Words beginning with
%
% , unstressed 4 , or unstressed ! 3
A less common variant consists of words beginning with unstressed pointed with qameG, pointed with qameG, or (whether stressed or not) pointed with qameG. unstressed In such cases the definite article is pointed with segol, as in the following examples.
!
-': 4 ! the cities
←
%
-': 4
-': ! !
cities
the mountains
←
-': !
-) % !
mountains
the wise man
←
-) % wise man
30
Unit Three
E. Words beginning with
/ and ' ' /
When the definite article is prefixed to a word beginning with or pointed with vocal shewa, the strong dagesh is frequently omitted, even though this means that the pataF pointing the definite article is left in an open, unstressed syllable (just as and ). This phenomenon is illustrated in the case of the virtually doubled gutturals in the following examples.
!
-'+ E: / !
←
%
-'+ E: /
-' + '!
spies
the children
the spies
←
-' + ' children
T
here are some exceptions to this rule, and it occasionally applies to nouns beginning with another consonant + vocal shewa. It’s easiest just to learn these cases individually as you encounter them and not worry about trying to find a pattern. (If you’re curious, the phenomenon will be explained a bit more fully in Unit 30, Grammar point 1.)
F. Exceptions A few words change in an irregular way when the definite article is prefixed to them. Just learn these words as you encounter them; some of the most common ones are listed below.
-4 !
←
the nation
0 E! the garden
←
-4
7: !
nation
the land
0 E
:! !
garden
the mountain
←
7: land
←
:! mountain
Points to note: In some of these cases, the pointing of the noun changes in an unexpected way when the definite article is prefixed, but the pointing of the definite ar-
0 E! 7: !
ticle itself is not irregular, e.g. , . In other cases, the pointing of the definite article is also irregular, e.g.
:! ! .
2. Use of the definite article In many cases the Hebrew definite article is used in the same way as its English counterpart, namely to indicate that the word to which it is prefixed refers to a specific
4. Noun–adjective phrases
31
item or concept, most likely one that has been mentioned previously and is thus familiar to the reader or hearer. An example of this is ‘the king’, ‘the horse’, which refers to a specific king and horse that you already know about, rather than just any king or horse. However, the Hebrew definite article can also be used in a few other ways that don’t correspond precisely to English. For example, it can be used to indicate a general can mean ‘gold’ in general rather than ‘the gold’. It can also be category, e.g.
! O!
T+ ] !
used to indicate that a speaker is directly addressing a listener, e.g. can mean ‘O King!’ as well as ‘the king’. The correct meaning of the definite article will usually be clear from the context.
3. Nominal (equational/verbless) sentences Study the following sentences from the story:
:'4 -f #
9 c ! ! Q
And a city is/was there.
Where is the justice?
This type of sentence is called nominal (alternatively equational or verbless). You can see that although the English equivalents of these sentences have a form of the verb (a word designating an action or state) ‘to be’, the Hebrew versions don’t. This type of sentence is quite common in Hebrew; when reading and translating such sentences, you have to remember to insert the ‘is/am/are’ into your translation.
4. Noun–adjective phrases You’ve seen a few examples of phrases consisting of a noun (a word describing a person, place, thing, or idea, e.g. ‘king’, ‘horse’, ‘palace’) and an adjective (a describing word, e.g. ‘big’, ‘small’). In Hebrew noun–adjective phrases the noun comes first and the adjective comes second, e.g.:
0&9 ! g
+L _ V
a small field
a big throne
This differs from English, in which the adjective comes first. If the word
/ ‘very’ is added to the adjective, it goes after the adjective: / +L E +)' ! a very big palace
32
Unit Three
5. Maqqef
¡
The symbol , which is called maqqef, is sometimes used to link two (or, more rarely, three) words together in order to indicate that there’s a close relationship between them. Words with maqqef attached to them are typically (though not always) mono-
_ V¡+ 4
‘on a syllabic. You saw an example of this in the story, in the phrase throne’. It’s not always obvious why a given word is joined by maqqef to another, and the symbol is not used completely consistently, so just learn to recognize it but don’t worry about trying to predict exactly when it will occur.
6. Word order in verbal sentences In a verbal sentence (a sentence containing a verb), the verb often precedes the noun, e.g.:
9 c ! ! Q 2K_! :/ Q #
0&9 ! j ! '! ' #
And the horse said, ‘Where is the justice?’
And the field was small.
7. Translating
! ^!
! ^!
The particle is a common feature of Biblical Hebrew and is used in a variety of different ways, which we’ll examine gradually during this course. The precise meaning and appropriate English translation of the particle has long been a thorny issue. In many traditional English Bible versions, it’s translated as ‘behold’; however, this translation can be problematic as ‘behold’ is not widely used in modern English outside of biblical translations, and therefore this translation can obscure the real function of the particle. While this function (or functions) has long been debated by grammarians, there’s widespread agreement that it serves to draw the listener’s or reader’s attention to whatever follows it, giving it an element of vividness or indicating that it’s somehow noteworthy. It usually appears in dialogue rather than narrative. In its most basic sense, it can appear in an equational sentence with a meaning of ‘here is’, e.g.:
2K_! ! ^! Here is the horse. However, it also very often appears in verbal sentences, in which case the translation is a bit more difficult. Keeping in mind the idea of vividness or noteworthiness, it could be translated as ‘look at this’, ‘don’t you see’, ‘don’t you know’, ‘look!’, or sometimes ‘now’ (in addition to the traditional ‘behold’). You can see some of these possibilities in the English translations of the following example from the story. As you gain famon any given iliarity with Biblical Hebrew, you’ll get a feel for the sense of occasion (though deciding how best to translate it may remain a challenge!).
! ^!
Exercises
33
' 1 # +L E +)' ! TL=C +L _ V¡+ 4 f ' T+ ] ! ! ^! ª0&9 ! g TL=C f ' ‘Look at this! The king is sitting on a big throne inside a big palace, whereas I am sitting inside a small field!’ ‘Look! The king . . .’ ‘Don’t you see? The king . . .’ ‘Behold! The king . . .’
Exercises 1.
Insert the correct form of the definite article into each of the following biblical extracts and translate each extract into English. When required, remember to add a strong dagesh to the first consonant of the noun and/or change its pointing. In this and subsequent such exercises, check any unfamiliar words in the Hebrew– English glossary at the end of the book.
! $______ -f ______ ! ^! (1 Samuel 12:13) T+ / ______¡'/ (Psalms 34:13) f' (Genesis 2:9) 0 ______ TL=C (Exodus 3:12) :!______ +4 ______¡ + :/ Q # (Genesis 3:1) !i (Genesis 19:4) -4______¡ +V (Genesis 35:5) -': 4 ______¡+4 (Daniel 1:15) -' + '______¡+V ! ______ TLk¡+ (Nehemiah 6:10) +)' (Genesis 2:11)
2
3
2.
2 3
.1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 .10
Answer in Biblical Hebrew the following questions about the story at the beginning of the unit. Remember to use full pointing in this and all subsequent exercises requiring you to write in Biblical Hebrew. ‘to’. ‘all’ (note: the vowel is a qameG FaHuf ).
34
Unit Three
/ +L !/ / 0&9 !/ ! j ! TL=C f ' '/ 3.
.5 .6 .7
:! ! ! Q +)' ! ! ! Q +)' ! ! TL=C f ' '/ ! j ! ! Q
.1 .2 .3 .4
Translate the following paragraph into Biblical Hebrew. Use sof pasuq to render all English punctuation. Remember that there’s no Hebrew equivalent for the English ‘am’, ‘is’, and ‘are’. In this and subsequent such exercises, check any unfamiliar words in the English–Hebrew glossary at the end of the book. The king is in the middle of the palace. The palace is big. The king is sitting on a throne. The throne is very big. The queen is next to the palace. The queen is in the middle of the garden. The garden is very big. The horse is in the middle of the field. The field is very small. Where is the justice?
The companion website has many extra exercises for this and subsequent units (particularly extra English–Hebrew translations).
Creation, part 1 (Genesis 1:1–13) Below is a simplified version of the beginning of the first chapter of Genesis, the first book of the Hebrew Bible, in which God creates the world and everything in it. Although it has been adapted, the text has not been rewritten in that all of the words appearing in it are taken directly from the Hebrew Bible. Original verse numbers are included so that you can locate them in an English or bilingual Bible edition; the numbers are not consecutive because some verses have been omitted from the adaptation. The text contains some grammatical constructions that we haven’t studied yet, but don’t be concerned as all unfamiliar forms and vocabulary are listed below.
ª7: ! = # - '/ i ! = -'!Y : C ='f : C 1:1 :L '! ' -'!Y :/ Q # 1:3 ªK! # K!= != '! 7: ! # 1:2 :/ Q # 1:6 ª % -L' :9 ¡'! ' # : 4¡' ! ' # 1:5 ª:L¡'! ' # -L' :9 ¡'! ' # : 4¡' ! ' # 1:8 ª- '] ! TL=C µ' 9 : '! ' -'!Y 8Lk # 1:12 ªf G 7: ! f k -'!Y :/ Q # 1:11 ª' 1f ª'f' + f -L' :9 ¡'! ' # : 4¡' ! ' # 1:13 ªf G 7: !
Vocabulary
35
Vocabulary in the beginning (he) created God no English equivalent; used to signal a definite direct object (see Unit 6) sky; heavens was (the vowel in the first syllable is qameG, not qameG FaHuf – this will be explained in Unit 6, Grammar point 3.) formlessness and void let there be light evening morning one firmament, vault water
second let it grow grass and it brought forth third
='f : C : C -'!Y = - '/ f != '! K! # K!= '! ' :L : 4 *:9 C % µ' 9 : - '/ (usually pointed as - '/ ) ' 1f f k f G 8Lk # 'f' + f
1:1
1:2
1:3
1:5
1:6
1:8 1:11
1:12 1:13
* In the biblical text this appears without weak dagesh because it follows a vowel. In this and subsequent such cases (in the introductory stories and biblical texts) the vocabulary list gives the standard form with weak dagesh.
Unit Four
Contents
!k f ] ! ‘The banquet’ The conjunction waw Prepositions (independent, separable, inseparable) Furtive pataF Creation, part 2 (Genesis 1:14–2:3)
!k f ] ! 0/ f # :g K -% + 0% + i !¡+ 4 '! ' # ª+)' ! C +L !k f / '! ' # 0 'Q ! ! Q T+ ] ! :/ Q # ª0% + i ! +8 f ' T+ ] ! # ': 6K f K 0 '' 2K_!¡+ 4 '! ' # 2K_!¡ 4 +)' ! !¡+ 4 Q # ª- '] ! # :g K -% + +) 2K_! ! ^! # 0% + i !¡+ 2K_! Q # ª- '/K ' 1 9 c ! ! Q T+ ] ! :/ Q # ª / ´ / g 2K_! # ': 6K f K ª2K_! TL=C +) ! # 4 :
1. Pointing the conjunction waw
37
Vocabulary water and (he) came servant; slave to with and water† and suddenly (see Unit 8, Grammar point 4)
- '/ Q # 4 ¡+ ¡-4 - '/K ! ^! #
happy‡ hungry food
in the palace* table bread; food and meat† meat; flesh oil and honey†
+) ´ / g 4 : +)
eating
banquet
honey and fruit† fruit wine
!k f / +)' ! C 0% + f -% + :g K :g C 0/ f f K f G ': 6K ': a 0 ''
* See Grammar point 3. † See Grammar point 1. ‡ See Grammar point 4.
Grammar points 1. Pointing the conjunction waw 396 See Reference grammar A6 for summary
#
In Unit 3 you were introduced to the prefix , meaning ‘and’. This prefix is called the conjunction waw (a conjunction is a word that links two or more other words, phrases, or sentences). This waw appears over 50,000 times in the Hebrew Bible, making it the most commonly occurring biblical word (though it’s technically not a word, just a prefix). As with the definite article, the pointing of the conjunction waw varies depending on the first consonant of the word to which it’s prefixed. The rules are very straightforward (just in case you may already be fearing otherwise!):
38
Unit Four
A. Default rule Typically waw is pointed with vocal shewa and prefixed directly to the following word with no further changes, as follows. Note that, in contrast to the definite article, a guttural at the beginning of the following word doesn’t affect the pointing of the waw, as you can see in the example on the bottom left.
0/ f #
←
and oil
3 # and a slave
←
0/ f
2K2 #
oil
and a horse
3
-% + #
a slave
and bread
←
2K2 a horse
←
-% + bread
Remember that if the word prefixed by waw begins with a begadkefat letter, this loses its weak dagesh because prefixing the waw to it means that it’s now directly following a vowel:
52 ) #
52 V
←
and silver/money
silver/money
C, /, or a The three letters C, /, or a form a special category of consonants called ‘bilabials’ B. Words beginning with
(from the Latin for ‘lip’, because they’re pronounced with the lips). When waw is prefixed to a word beginning with one of the bilabials, it becomes shureq. This is the only exception in all of Biblical Hebrew to the rule that a word never begins with a vowel. (Note again that if the word begins with a begadkefat letter, this loses its weak dagesh when the is prefixed to it, as in the middle and left-hand examples.)
K
A
n easy way to remember this category is by the word BUMP, which contains all three bilabial letters as well as the ‘u’ sound of shureq.
': 6K and fruit
←
': a
:g K
fruit
and meat
←
:g C
- '/K
meat
and water
C. Words beginning with any consonant except
←
- '/ water
' pointed with vocal shewa '
Similarly, if the word to which waw is attached begins with any consonant except pointed with vocal shewa, the waw becomes a shureq. As usual, if the word begins
1. Pointing the conjunction waw
39
with a begadkefat letter, this loses its weak dagesh when the shureq is prefixed to it, as in the example on the left.
f K
←
f G
!/YfK
honey
and Solomon
and honey
D. Words beginning with
←
!/Yf
L%:K
Solomon
and a city square
L%:
←
city square
'
'
If a word begins with pointed with vocal shewa, something slightly different happens when waw is prefixed to it: the quiesces (it loses its pointing, changing from a consonant to a mater lectionis) and the conjunction waw is pointed with Fireq:
-' +' #
←
and children
'
-' + '
- + fK:' #
children
and Jerusalem
! K!' #
- + fK: '
←
Jerusalem
! K! '
←
and Judah
Judah (region in which Jerusalem is located)
E. Words beginning with a letter pointed with a reduced vowel If a word begins with a consonant (usually a guttural) pointed with a reduced vowel, waw is pointed with the equivalent short vowel, as shown below: 1
! Q 1 #
←
and a ship F. The words
1
! Q 1
=/ #
ship
and truth
←
=/
' 1 #
truth
and I
←
' 1 I
-'!Y and ! #! ' -'!Y
The pointing of the conjunction waw is irregular when prefixed to the word beginning the word quiesces, and the waw is pointed with Gere. ‘God’: the The pointing is also irregular when prefixed to the Tetragrammaton (the four-letter , but the name of the Israelite God). The consonants of the Tetragrammaton are original vowels are unknown and according to Jewish tradition the name should never , meaning be pronounced aloud. Rather, it’s replaced in speech by the word ‘my Lord’. It’s usually translated into English as ‘The LORD’ (printed in small capitals)
!#!' ' 1
Remember that
ß
here is the short vowel qameG FaHuf, so the sequence
ß ß
is pronounced o-o.
40
Unit Four
or ‘The ETERNAL’. Because of this tradition, the Tetragrammaton is pointed with except that the FaHef-pataF is replaced by pataF and the Folem the vowels of . (This consonant–vowel combination is usually omitted, resulting in the form is the source of the English name ‘Jehovah’.) When the conjunction waw is prefixed , the vocal shewa is dropped and the waw is pointed with pataF. to
' 1
! #! '
! #! '
! #!' #
! #! '
-'!Y #
The LORD
and God
←
and the LORD G. Common expressions with
←
-'!Y God
#
Sometimes when two nouns are linked by the conjunction waw, the waw is pointed with qameG. This can occur when a) the two nouns are very closely related and frequently appear as a pair, almost like set expressions, and b) the second word is monosyllabic or accented on the penultimate syllable. This phenomenon is really a tendency rather than a hard and fast rule, so just learn these types of pairs as you come across them rather than trying to predict when they will occur. Here are some common examples.
08 # :9 C herds (cattle) and flocks (sheep and goats)
- '/ # -% +
3: # L&
52 ) # ! $
bread and water
good and evil
gold and silver
2
2. Uses of the conjunction waw In many cases the conjunction waw corresponds in meaning to the English ‘and’, as shown below:
': 6K f K 0/ f # :g K -% + bread and meat and oil and honey and fruit However, it also has a wider variety of additional meanings. It often indicates a contrast, equivalent to English ‘but’ or ‘whereas’, e.g.:
ª2K_! TL=C +) ! # 4 : ' 1 9 c ! ! Q T+ ] ! :/ Q # And the king said, ‘Where is the justice? I am hungry, but the food is inside the horse!’
2
This phenomenon applies to BUMP letters, as illustrated here.
3. Prepositions
41
f ' ' 1 # +L E +)' ! TL=C f ' T+ ] ! 2K_! :/ Q # ª0&9 ! g TL=C And the horse said, ‘The king is sitting inside a big palace, whereas I am sitting inside a small field.’ Moreover, it’s often used at the beginning of a new storyline or change of narrative topic to introduce background information. This is called initializing waw and has the sense of ‘now’ or ‘by the way’, e.g.:
9 c ! ! Q :/ Q # / 4 : T+ ] ! # Now the king was very hungry, and he said, ‘Where is the justice?’ The context will usually make clear which translation is the best on any given occasion. Moreover, in some cases more than one interpretation may be possible.
3. Prepositions A preposition is a word that is placed before a noun in order to describe a temporal or physical relationship between that noun and another noun in the sentence, e.g. ‘on’, ‘in’, ‘with’, ‘inside’.
A
ny word that you can put directly in front of the English phrase ‘the boxes’ is a preposition, e.g. in the boxes, with the boxes, around the boxes, under the boxes, inside the boxes, behind the boxes, before the boxes, etc.
Prepositions have the same function in Hebrew as in English. However, they can be divided into three classes depending on their form, as follows: A. Independent prepositions Independent prepositions are, as the name suggests, words that are not linked to the following noun in any way. The word ent preposition, as shown below:
+8 ‘next to’ is an example of an independ-
0% + i ! +8 f ' T+ ] ! The king was sitting next to the table.
42
Unit Four
B. Separable prepositions A second category consists of prepositions that may sometimes appear in the Hebrew Bible as independent words, but are usually joined to the following word by a maqqef. Such prepositions are quite logically called separable because they may either be separate or joined to the following word. You have already met a few separable prepositions; here are some of the more common ones, shown with maqqef:
2K_!¡ 4
←
with the horse
¡-4 +)' ! !¡+ with
←
¡+ 0% + i !¡+ 4
to the palace
to
←
on the table
¡+4 on
Here are a few more common separable prepositions:
+)' ! !¡0 / from the palace
←
¡0/
2K_!¡=
from
with the horse
!k f ] !¡ 4
← ←
¡= with (synonym of ¡-4 ) ¡ 4
until the banquet
until
Points to note:
¡+
¡= ¡0/
+
When and appear without maqqef, they’re pointed as and respectively. The preposition quite commonly appears in a variant form, as a prefix . In such cases, the first consonant of the following word takes a strong . Here’s an example: dagesh, representing the assimilated original of
= -/
2K_/
←
from a horse
1 ¡0/ 2K2¡0/
from a horse
It will probably come as no surprise that if the first consonant of the following word is a guttural, there’s no strong dagesh and instead there’s compensatory lengthening from Fireq to Gere:
-) % / from a wise man C. Inseparable prepositions
C , V , +
←
-) %¡0 / from a wise man
396 See Reference grammar A7 for summary
This is a small but very important category consisting of three extremely common prepositions. In contrast to independent and separable prepositions, inseparable prepositions
3. Prepositions
43
are not separate words but rather prefixes consisting of a single consonant (like the definite article and conjunction waw). The inseparable prepositions are:
C ‘in’; ‘at’; ‘with’; ‘by’
V ‘like’; ‘as’
+ ‘to’; ‘for’
The inseparable prepositions further resemble the definite article and conjunction waw in that their pointing changes depending on the first consonant of the word to which they’re prefixed. Again, the rules are simple, and in most cases they overlap with the rules for the pointing of the conjunction waw; moreover, the rules apply to all three prepositions, so you only have to memorize them once. i. Default rule Inseparable prepositions are typically pointed with vocal shewa, as follows: in/with/by a horse like/as a horse to/for a horse
2K2C 2K2V 2K2 +
←
2K2 a horse
Remember that, as usual, if the word begins with a begadkefat letter, this loses its weak dagesh when the preposition is prefixed: to/for silver ii.
52 ) +
←
silver
Words beginning with a consonant other than
52 V
' pointed with vocal shewa
Like the conjunction waw, the inseparable prepositions are pointed differently when they’re prefixed to a word beginning with any consonant (except ) pointed with vocal shewa. This is because according to the principles of Masoretic vocalization two vocal shewas may not appear next to each other. (Vocal shewas are like identical twins who are constantly fighting and must be kept separated from each other for their own safety!) If it happens that two vocal shewas do end up next to each other (due to e.g. prefixing an inseparable preposition to a word beginning with a consonant pointed with vocal shewa), the first vocal shewa is changed to a Fireq. This is called the rule of shewa. You’ll meet the rule of shewa again in other contexts during this course. As usual, a word beginning with a begadkefat letter loses the weak dagesh when the inseparable preposition is prefixed, as in the third example.
'
f C in honey
←
f G
!/Yf V
honey
like/as Solomon
←
!/Yf
L%: +
Solomon
to/for a city square
←
L%: city square
44
Unit Four
iii. Words beginning with
'
As in the case of the conjunction waw, if an inseparable preposition is prefixed to a word beginning with pointed with vocal shewa, the quiesces and the preposition is pointed with Fireq:
'
-' +' +
'
-' + ' ! K!' C
←
to/for children
children
←
in Judah
! K! ' - + fK:' C Judah
←
- + fK: '
in Jerusalem
Jerusalem
iv. Words beginning with a consonant pointed with a reduced vowel Again, as in the case of the conjunction waw, if an inseparable preposition is prefixed to a word beginning with a consonant (usually a guttural) pointed with a reduced vowel, the inseparable preposition is pointed with the corresponding short vowel. This is actually a variant of the rule of shewa, which stipulates that a vocal shewa may not be followed by a reduced vowel.
! Q 1 V
3
←
! Q 1 =/ C ← =/ !/ + ← !/
like/as a ship v. The words
ship
in truth
truth
to/for earth
earth; land
-'!Y and ! #! '
Again, as in the case of the conjunction waw, if an inseparable preposition is prefixed
-'!Y
to the word ‘God’, the beginning the word quiesces and the preposition , the vocal shewa is removed and is pointed with Gere; similarly, if prefixed to the preposition is pointed with pataF:
! #!'+ to/for the LORD
←
! #!'
! #! '
-'!Y +
the LORD
to/for God
←
-'!Y God
The inseparable prepositions have one further idiosyncracy. When one of them is prefixed to a word that is already prefixed by the definite article, the definite article is elided (disappears) and the preposition takes its place, but the original pointing of the definite article (i.e. pataF, qameG, or segol) remains. It’s as if the inseparable preposition devours the definite article and steals its pointing:
3
Again, remember that
ß
here is the short vowel qameG FaHuf.
Exercises
45
You can see this phenomenon in the following examples:
+)' ! C
←
in the palace
-': ! C
←
in the mountains
+)' ! !
2K_+
the palace
to/for the horse
-': ! !
f' V
the mountains
like/as the man
←
2K_! the horse
←
f' ! the man
4. Furtive pataT
´ / g !
You may have noticed something puzzling about the vocalization of the word ‘happy’: it has a pataF at the right side of the final consonant . This is called a furtive and (and, very rarely, ) pataT and is often found pointing the guttural consonants when they appear at the end of a word following an I-class or U-class vowel. The reason for this is that, as you remember, these gutturals prefer A-class vowels; so great is their preference that if one of them happens to be at the end of a word following some other type of vowel, it ‘furtively’ snatches an extra pataF for itself. Unlike other vowels, the furtive pataF is pronounced before the final guttural, forming a diphthong is pronounced sameaF with the preceding vowel, so for example the word rather than sameFa. In order to indicate this, in many printed Hebrew Bibles and grammars (including this one) the furtive pataF is printed just to the right of the guttural (though in some books it appears directly beneath the guttural, just like other vowels). The furtive pataF seems to break the rule that a syllable may have only one vowel, but it’s not actually counted as a vowel for purposes of syllable division: for example,
%
%
3
´ / g
´ / g has two syllables, and is divided ´ / \g . Exercises 1.
Insert the correct form of the conjunction waw into the following biblical extracts and translate each extract into English. In some cases you may have to change the pointing of the word to which you prefix the conjunction.
!i __________ f' (Numbers 22:18) ! $__________ 52 V ! __________ - '/ i ! (Genesis 2:1) 7: __________ !P / (2 Kings 4:10) _ V __________ 0% + f (Exodus 35:29)
4
4
‘bed’; ‘couch’.
.1 .2 .3 .4
46
Unit Four
:g C __________ -% + f (Ezekiel 16:19) f G __________ 0/ __________ -L+f (Isaiah 39:8) =/ __________ -% + (2 Kings 6:22) - '/ '__________ ! K! ' (Jeremiah 19:7) - + fK: (Ecclesiastes 6:2) '+ % __________ + ! (1 Kings 17:6)
5
6
2.
7
.5 .6 .7 .8 .9 .10
Insert the correct form of the inseparable preposition in brackets into the following story. In some cases you may have to change the pointing or initial consonant of the word to which you prefix the preposition.
+)' ! ! __________ C '! ' # ª[+ fK: '__________ C +)' ! '! ' # ª 4 # -' +' # T+ / !k f ] ! __________ C '! ' # ª+L !k f / :g '! ' # ª-' + '! __________ + f G __________ C ': 6 '! ' # ªT+ ] ! __________ + 0 '' __________ C ': 6K 0/ f __________C :/ Q # ª 4 ! __________ + - '/ __________ C -% + '! ' # ª7: ! __________ C 9 8 0' =/ __________ C 4 ! 8
3.
Translate the story from Exercise 2 into English.
4.
Translate the following paragraph into Biblical Hebrew. The king is in the palace. The king is sitting on the throne. The throne is next to the table. The table is empty. Where is the food? The servant is in the garden. On the earth next to the servant is meat and bread and oil and fruit and honey and wine. The servant is very happy, but the king is very hungry.
5 6 7 8
‘peace’. ‘vanity (i.e. meaninglessness)’. ‘illness’. ‘there isn’t any’ (see Unit 13).
Vocabulary
47
Creation, part 2 (Genesis 1:14–2:3)
¡'! ' # 1:19 ª- '/ i ! µ' 9 : C = : / '! ' -'!Y :/ Q # 1:14 - '] ! K8: f ' -'!Y :/ Q # 1:20 ª'4' : -L' :9 ¡'! ' # : 4 g4 Q # 1:25 ª'f' / % -L' :9 ¡'! ' # : 4¡' ! ' # 1:23 ª7: f ª- !¡= -'!Y : Q # 1:27 ª7: ! = Q%¡= -'!Y - '/ i ! KX) ' # 2:1 ª'i i ! -L' :9 ¡'! ' # : 4¡' ! ' # 1:31 ª'4' i ! -L'¡= -'!Y T: ' # 2:3 ª7: ! # Vocabulary lights the firmament of the heavens fourth let (them) swarm creeping creature(s) fifth and (he) made no English equivalent; used to signal a definite direct object (see Unit 6, Grammar point 3); not to be confused with the identical-looking separable preposition the animals of the land and (he) created human; man; Adam the sixth
'! ' #
, this is actually a and (they) were finished (as in vocal shewa; see Unit 30 for explanation) and (he) blessed the seventh
= : / - '/ i ! µ' 9 : '4' : K8: f ' 7: f 'f' / % g4 Q # ¡= 7: ! = Q% : Q # - 'i i ! KX) ' # T: ' # '4' i !
1:14
1:19 1:20
1:23 1:25
1:27
1:31 2:1 2:3
Unit Five
Contents
=L1L= # -'X / E ‘Camels and donkeys’ Noun gender Noun number (including segolate and geminate nouns) Adam and Eve (Genesis 2:7–22)
=L1L= # -'X / E -'X / E¡+4 =L)+ /K -') + / K Q # ª+)' ! !k f / L3 '! ' # +)' ! C =L)+ ] ! # -') + ] ! K f Q # ª!k f ] !¡+ =L1L=¡+ 4 # ! j C =L1L= ! # -'X / E! K f Q # ª-'] 4 & / K+) Q # - '/L' =L)+ ] ! # -') + ] ! '+ 'L 2K_! :/ Q # ªf K+) Q # - '/L' ª 4 : ' 1 # -'4 g =L1L= ! # -'X / E! #
2. Noun gender
49
Vocabulary
K f Q #
and (they) sat; and (they) lived two days* delicacies grass woe is me! full, sated (masculine plural)†
- '/L' -'] 4 & / f G '+ 'L -'4 g
camels female donkeys, she-asses again and (they) came kings queens
-'X / E =L1L= L3 K Q # -') + / =L)+ /
* See Grammar point 3. † See Grammar points 2 and 3.
Grammar points 1. Introduction to nouns As mentioned above, a noun is a word that denotes a person, place, thing, or idea. Nouns (in Hebrew and in English) may be further labelled proper or common. A proper
!/Yf ‘Solomon’, or place, e.g. - + fK: ' ‘Jerusalem’. A common noun is a noun referring to anything else, e.g. T+ / , 2K2, +)' ! . noun is the name of a specific person, e.g.
2. Noun gender Hebrew nouns can be divided into two grammatical categories called masculine and feminine. Many other languages, including French, Spanish, Italian, and Arabic, have a similar system of so-called grammatical gender, and so if you have studied one of these languages this concept will be easy for you. However, if you are encountering it for the first time the idea can be a bit difficult to get used to, because grammatical gender is not always the same as logical real-world gender. In the case of nouns referring to humans or animals, gender is usually quite straight-
T+ / is categorized as grammatically masculine, and also refers to a male entity, a king, while the noun !V + / is categorized as grammatically
forward: for example, the noun
feminine, and also refers to a female entity, a queen.
50
Unit Five
However, in the case of nouns that refer to inanimate objects or abstract concepts, grammatical gender doesn’t have anything to do with maleness or femaleness: for
! g
:'4
example, is grammatically masculine while is grammatically feminine, but there’s nothing intrinsically male or masculine about a field, nor anything intrinsically female or feminine about a city. Therefore you’ll just have to memorize the gender of nouns referring to inanimate objects and concepts. However, fortunately in Hebrew the ending of the noun usually tells you whether that noun is masculine or feminine, so with very few exceptions it’s easy to distinguish the two genders. It’s important to know the correct gender of Hebrew nouns because verbs and adjectives have to match their corresponding noun in gender, so when you start to study verbs and adjectives in the next few units you’ll need this information. In fact, you’ve already seen an example of this in the last line of the story above: the adjective nouns.
-'4 g ‘full, sated’ is masculine plural to correspond to the preceding
A. Masculine nouns
Masculine nouns don’t have a special ending. They typically end in any consonant except , e.g.
=
:! , 2K2.
! $, +)' ! , 52 V , T+ / ,
=. (However, there are a few exceptions to this, e.g. the masculine nouns = 'C ‘house’, = '$ ‘olive’, = #/ ‘death’.) They may end in any vowel except !ß , e.g. ! g , _ V . (There are only rare exceptions to this, chiefly the masculine noun !+ '+ ‘night’.) They don’t usually end in
B. Feminine nouns
Feminine nouns usually end in either of the following:
!ß , e.g. !V + / b) = , e.g. =C ‘daughter’ The !ß ending is the most common. In many cases a masculine noun referring to a male human or animal can be made to the end of the word, e.g.: feminine by adding !ß ← !2K2 2K2 a)
(female) horse, mare
(male) horse
3. Noun number (singular, dual, plural)
Not all feminine nouns have these typical endings. Some feminine nouns are ‘endingless’ and therefore look like masculine nouns. In some cases these nouns refer to a female human or animal, which makes it easy to remember that they’re still grammatically feminine, e.g.:
0L=
-
female donkey
mother
However, in other cases endingless feminine nouns refer to inanimate objects or abstract concepts, and therefore you just have to memorize that they’re grammatic-
ally feminine. You’ve already learned three such nouns:
F
51
7: , :'4 , and L%: .
rom now on new endingless feminine nouns will be indicated in the vocabulary lists (as well as in the glossaries at the end of the book) by the abbreviation (f).
C. Nouns with common gender A small number of nouns appear in the Hebrew Bible as masculine in some cases and feminine in others. Such nouns are said to have common gender. You have already
:L
0 E
08
‘light’, ‘garden’, ‘flock met several nouns with common gender, i.e. (sheep and goats)’. From now on, nouns with common gender will be labelled with (c) in the vocabulary lists (as well as in the glossaries at the end of the book).
B
e careful not to confuse the two uses of the label common: a common noun is one that doesn’t denote a specific person or place, whereas a noun with common gender is one that can be either masculine or feminine.
3. Noun number (singular, dual, plural) 397 See Reference grammar A8–9 for summary
Just as in English, nouns in Hebrew may be either singular (referring to one person, place, thing, or concept) or plural (referring to more than one). The nouns discussed in Grammar point 1 were all singular. However, in the story you met quite a few
-') + / =L)+ / -'X / E =L1L=
, , , . Moreover, in addition plural nouns, e.g. to singular and plural, Hebrew has a third category, called dual, which is used to refer to exactly two of something. You saw one example of the dual in the story, the
52
Unit Five
- '/L'
word , which was translated as ‘two days’. (The dual is actually used only in a relatively limited set of circumstances; most Biblical Hebrew nouns have only a singular and plural form). Let’s look at the singular, plural, and dual in turn (leaving the dual to last because it isn’t as common as the singular and plural). A. Singular
Singular nouns don’t have a special ending designating them as such (except, of or ). course, if they’re feminine and have one of the feminine suffixes The singular form of a noun is often called the base or lexical form. In Biblical Hebrew a singular noun can be used as a collective (designating a whole group or category). In such cases English would typically use the plural. For
!ß =
7: f
, which appeared in Genesis 1:20 at the end of example, the singular noun Unit 4, means ‘creeping creatures’ rather than a single ‘creeping creature’.
B. Plural
The plural form is used to denote more than one of the noun in question (except in the case of nouns that have a distinct dual form, in which case the plural refers to three or more). You may have noticed that all of the plural nouns in the story above end in either
-'ß or =L . Indeed, all Hebrew nouns end in one of these two plural suffixes (endings).
-'ß suffix is typically used for masculine nouns. The =L suffix is typically used for feminine nouns. The
Making a noun plural is in principle very simple.
For masculine nouns, add the
-'ß suffix:
-'2K2
←
horses
For feminine nouns ending in
2K2 horse
!ß , remove the !ß and add the =L suffix:
=L2K2 mares
←
!2K2 mare
3. Noun number (singular, dual, plural)
53
W
hen the plural suffix is added a new syllable is created and the stress shifts to this new final syllable (so that, as expected, the stress can stay on the final syllable of the word).
In the case of many nouns, this is all you have to do in order to form the plural. However, in the case of many other nouns, there are also vocalization changes that occur when the plural suffix is added. This is because of the point mentioned just above that when the plural suffix is added a new syllable is created; this can cause problems in the pointing of the word. There are two principal vowel change patterns to learn, called propretonic reduction and pretonic reduction. In addition, some nouns undergo compensatory lengthening, just like the definite article, and then there are a few variations and exceptions. We’ll examine each of these in turn. i. Propretonic reduction This is the most typical vowel change in plural nouns. It affects nouns with a tone-long vowel (typically qameG, but sometimes Gere) in an open, pretonic syllable, such as ‘word’; ‘thing’. When the plural suffix is added, the new syllable structure results in that initial tone-long vowel being left in an open, propretonic syllable. This is not allowed, and so the tone-long vowel is reduced to vocal shewa. This phenomenon is called propretonic reduction and you’ll meet it again in other contexts later in this course. Study the following example:
: G
-': G
←
-': G
←
words; things
: G words; things
propretonic reduction of tone-long vowel to shewa
impossible pointing: tone-long vowel in open, propretonic syllable
tone-long vowel in open pretonic syllable
Because guttural consonants cannot take vocal shewa, in words beginning with a guttural consonant the tone-long vowel reduces to FaHef pataF instead. (This doesn’t apply to , which can take a vocal shewa.)
:
-'/ ) %
←
-'/ ) %
wise men FaHef pataF instead of vocal shewa
←
-) % wise man
impossible: guttural cannot take vocal shewa
tone-long vowel in open pretonic syllable
54
Unit Five
ii. Pretonic reduction There’s a category of masculine nouns whose singular form has the vowel pattern
&6 f
ßß ß¥ ,
e.g. ‘judge’. This type of noun is called an active participle. We’ll examine active participles in more detail in Unit 20, but for now all you need to know about them is this:
Active participles don’t undergo propretonic reduction in the plural because their first vowel, Folem, is historically long (even though in many cases, such as the one shown here, it’s spelled defectively). Instead, the second vowel of such nouns is reduced to shewa. This phenomenon is called pretonic reduction, because it affects the pretonic syllable of the plural noun. In contrast to propretonic reduction, there’s no logical reason to reduce the vowel of the pretonic syllable, because tone-long vowels are commonly found in open, pretonic syllables; this is simply the convention for this category of noun (and, like propretonic reduction, will be encountered again later in this course). You can see this principle in the following examples:
-': 6 2 scribes
←
:6 2
-'& 6 f
scribe
judges
←
&6 f judge
As in the case of propretonic reduction, a guttural consonant takes FaHef pataF instead of vocal shewa:
-' 1! V priests
←
0! V priest
iii. Segolates There’s another special category of nouns called segolates that form their plurals slightly differently. The most common segolate patterns are easily recognizable: a. Masculine/endingless feminine segolates
Masculine and endingless feminine segolates usually have two syllables, are stressed on the first syllable, and have a segol pointing their second syllable, e.g.
4 ,
T+ / , + ' ‘child’, 7: , :6 2 ‘scroll’; ‘letter’, -: V ‘vineyard’, f % ‘month’.
If the second or third consonant is a guttural, both syllables are instead pointed
with pataF, e.g. ‘lad’. Segolates take this characteristic pattern for historical reasons. At an early (prebiblical) phase in the history of Hebrew, segolate nouns were monosyllabic with
:4 1
3. Noun number (singular, dual, plural)
55
a short vowel (either pataF, Fireq, or qameG FaHuf/qibbuG). For example,
T+ /
S+ /
-: V
-: V
:6 2
was originally and was originally , while was originally . At some stage these final consonant clusters became difficult to pronounce, so a helping vowel segol was inserted between the original two final consonants, and the words became disyllabic (composed of two syllables). This caused the original short vowel of the first syllable to change, often to segol as well but sometimes to Gere or, in the case of qameG FaHuf/qibbuG, to Folem.
:6 2
b. Feminine segolates ending in
!ß
Feminine segolates usually have two syllables, with the first syllable closed and
!ß
!V + /
the second syllable ending in , e.g. . This is because in the feminine singular form (as well as in other cases that we’ll examine later in the course), the original short vowel reappears. There’s no sure way of knowing what the original vowel of a segolate noun is, so just learn them as you come across them and don’t worry about it. In later units you’ll encounter other circumstances in which the original vowel of the segolate returns, and you’ll become familiar with the most common ones.
The plural of both types of segolates is formed as follows:
-': 4 1
←
lads
=L)+ / queens
←
:4 1
=L8:
lad
lands
!V + /
-': 6 2
queen
scrolls; letters
←
7: -') + / land
←
←
kings
:6 2 -' 4 scroll; letter
king ←
slaves
-' + ' children
T+ / 4 slave
←
+ ' child
Points to note: The first syllable undergoes propretonic reduction, the second syllable is for maspointed with qameG, and then the plural ending is added (
-'ß
=L
culine nouns and for feminine nouns). If the first consonant is a guttural, it’s pointed with FaHef pataF instead of vocal shewa, as in the second example on the right and the top example in the middle column. The stress moves to the end of the word when the plural suffix is added, even if it was on the first syllable in the singular.
f %
If the singular form has Folem pointing the first syllable, e.g. , the plural has FaHef qameG (even if its first consonant is not a guttural, as in the left-hand example below).
56
Unit Five
-'f 9
←
holinesses
f 9
-'f %
holiness
months
←
f % month
T
here are also other, less common, segolate patterns:
a) b)
ß 'ß , e.g. = 'C . % 1 ‘bronze’. Trisyllabic (three-syllable) feminine segolates ending in = , e.g. =f
Masculine/endingless feminine segolates with the form
All segolates are labelled with (s) in subsequent vocabulary lists and in the glossaries at the end of the book.
iv. Geminates There’s another special category of nouns called geminates. Geminate nouns typically consist of a monosyllabic closed syllable. The term geminate derives from the Latin word for ‘twin’, and this is a fitting description of these nouns, because the last con‘nation’ sonant is actually ‘twinned’, i.e. doubled; for example, the geminate noun . You can’t see this in the singular because technically consists of the consonants the last letter of a word is not allowed to take strong dagesh; however, when the plural suffixes are added, the doubling returns, as in this example:
-4
-/3
-'] 4
←
nations
-4 nation
If the singular geminate noun is pointed with a long vowel, this reduces to a short vowel:
Gere reduces to Fireq Folem reduces to qibbuG
-'d % statutes
←
9%
=LC+
statute
hearts
←
+ heart
If the final consonant of the geminate noun is a guttural, this can’t double. Therefore, if the singular form is pointed with a short vowel, the plural undergoes either compensatory lengthening or virtual doubling according to the same principles that you learned for the definite article in Unit 3. (Compensatory lengthening is by far the most common pattern, as shown below; virtual doubling is restricted to a small number of geminates ending in .)
%
-': ! mountains
←
:! mountain
3. Noun number (singular, dual, plural)
57
N
ot all monosyllabic nouns are geminates. As you become more familiar with Biblical Hebrew you’ll get to know the most common geminates and develop a feel for recognizing new ones. In order to help you, all geminate nouns are labelled with (g) in subsequent vocabulary lists and in the glossaries at the end of the book.
v. Nouns ending in
! !ß
We’ve already seen that feminine nouns ending in lose this ending when the plural suffix is added. The same is true of masculine nouns ending in : the final vowel are replaced directly by the plural suffix, e.g.: and
!
!
=L g
←
! g
fields (see also point vii)
field
vi. Nouns with irregular consonant or vowel changes in the plural At this point it may not come as a surprise to discover that, in addition to the rules you’ve just learned, some nouns have irregular plural forms with unexpected consonant and/or vowel changes. Some of the most common of these nouns are shown below, and in future units new nouns with irregular plurals will be indicated with the label (p) in the vocabulary lists.
=L2 V
←
chairs; thrones (strong dagesh is lost)
=L1C
←
daughters
-'f 1
←
women (see also point vii)
-': 4
←
cities (see also point vii)
_ V
-'X / E
chair; throne
camels
=C
-'f 1
daughter
men
!i
-'/'
woman
days
:'4
-' 1C
city
sons
←
+/ E camel
←
f' man
←
-L' day
←
0C son
vii. Plural suffixes with ‘mismatched’ gender
-'ß
=L
suffix is typically used with masculine nouns and the suffix Although the is typically used with feminine nouns, certain masculine nouns form their plural with
=L and certain feminine nouns form their plural with -'ß . Just memorize these irregular plurals as you encounter them, and don’t let the plural suffix trick you – the
58
Unit Five
gender of a noun is determined by the singular form, so a noun that is masculine in the singular, e.g.
0% + f , is still masculine in the plural even though its plural form
=L1% + f , which looks as if it should be feminine. Similarly, a noun that is feminine in the singular, e.g. !i , is still feminine in the plural even though its plural form is -'f 1, which looks as if it should be masculine. Nouns that we have already is
met belonging to this category are listed below. In future units, this type of unexpected plural suffix will be provided in the vocabulary lists.
=L : =L1% + f ←
Masculine nouns with plural suffix
tables (still masculine!) Feminine nouns with plural suffix
0% + f table (masculine)
-'ß : -'f 1
women (still feminine!)
-': 4
!i
←
woman (feminine)
:'4
←
cities (still feminine!)
-' 1f
city (feminine)
! 1f
←
years (still feminine!)
year (feminine)
C. Dual The dual of nouns is very easy to form and to recognize: it’s formed by adding the suffix
- 'ß to the singular form of the noun, as in the following examples: - ' ' (a pair of) hands
←
'
(f) hand
- '/L'
←
two days
-L' day
Segolate nouns revert to their original historic form in the dual, i.e. they become monosyllabic with their original short vowel, and the dual ending is added to that. There aren’t that many of these dual segolate forms, so just memorize them as you come across them:
- '+ : (a pair of) feet; (a pair of) legs
←
+ :
(f) foot; leg
Exercises
!ß
!
59
=
In the case of feminine nouns ending in , the is replaced by when the dual suffix is added. Moreover, if the word has more than one syllable, propretonic reduction occurs:
- '= 1f two years
←
! 1f year
You might see some other slight pointing variations on dual forms, but nothing to stop you from recognizing them, so just learn them as you encounter them. In Biblical Hebrew the dual form cannot be used for all nouns; rather, it’s quite restricted, appearing only on certain nouns and in certain circumstances. It’s used only in the following cases: i.
nouns denoting body parts that occur naturally in pairs, e.g.
ii.
nouns referring to lengths of time, e.g.
- ' '
- '= 1f numerals denoting two of something, e.g. - '= / ‘two hundred’
iii. iv. A few frequently occurring nouns look dual but have a singular or plural meaning (usually because they evolved from other forms and only coincidentally resemble duals). The most common of these are listed below: water (plural form that coincidentally resembles a dual) sky; heavens (plural form that coincidentally resembles a dual) Jerusalem (singular) Egypt (the dual form may refer to the historical two united Egyptian kingdoms)
F
- '/ - '/ f - + fK: ' - ': 8 /
rom now on new dual forms will be indicated in the vocabulary lists (as well as in the glossaries at the end of the book) by the abbreviation (d).
Exercises 1.
Give the gender and number of the highlighted nouns in the following extracts from Genesis and translate each extract into English. (Genesis 1:1)
7: ! = # -'/ i ! = -'!Y : C ='f : C G 7: ! f k (Genesis 1:11) f (Genesis 1:19) '4' : -L' :9 ¡'!'# :4¡'!'#
.1 .2 3
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Unit Five
- !¡= -'!Y : Q # !¡+ :/ Q # (Genesis 3:1) !i 1 'k f (Genesis 4:19) -'f f/ % (Genesis 5:11) -' 1f -' 1C +L Q # (Genesis 5:30) =L1 K V (Genesis 7:19) -': ! !¡+ ! :% - '= 1f (Genesis 11:10) +KC]
(Genesis 1:27)
1
2
3
4
2.
.4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 .10
Rewrite the following paragraph, making the highlighted nouns plural (remember to make any necessary pointing changes).
=C ! # 0C ! ª0% + f +8 _ V¡+ 4 +)' ! !V + ] ! # T+ ] ! ª! j C 0L= ! # +/ E! # 2K_! ª-: V C 4 ! # 3.
Translate the completed paragraph from Exercise 2 into English.
4.
Translate the following paragraph into Biblical Hebrew. In this and subsequent such exercises, don’t translate words in square brackets. The horse is in the field with the camels and with the [female] donkeys. The camels and the donkeys are full, but the horse is hungry. Where are the delicacies? The delicacies are inside the palace, with the kings and with the queens. And where is the grass? The grass is inside the camels and the donkeys.
Adam and Eve (Genesis 2:7–22) This is the story of the creation of the first humans.
ª!/ !¡0 / :6 4 - !¡= -'!Y ! #! ' :8' Q # 2:7 ª- !¡= -f -g Q # 0 4 C¡0 E -'!Y ! #! ' 3P Q # 2:8 1 2 3
4
‘two’. ‘five’. ‘and he fathered’.
+KC] ! :%
‘after the flood’ (see Units 8–9 for the biblical flood story).
Vocabulary
61
ªLG + - ! =L'! L&¡+ -'!Y ! #! ' :/ Q # 2:18 =% %d Q # - !¡+ 4 !/ G : k -'!Y ! #! ' +a Q # 2:21 ª !i + 3+ c !¡= -'!Y ! #! ' 0 Q # 2:22 ª#'= 3+ c / 5
Vocabulary
:8' Q # :6 4 3P Q # 0 4 -g Q # ¡+ L& =L'! LG + +a Q # !/ G : k %d Q # =% *#'= 3+ c / 0 Q # (f; s) 3+ 8
and (he) created dust and (he) planted Eden and (he) placed not good being; to be by himself and (he) cast deep sleep and (he) took one (f) of his ribs and (he) built rib * Note that the sequence
5
In this case
+
#'ß
at the end of a word is pronounced -av.
should be translated as ‘into’.
2:7
2:8
2:18
2:21
2:22
Unit Six
Contents
-'+ V ! ‘The vessels’ The Biblical Hebrew verbal system The qal qaHal The definite direct object marker Parsing verbs The serpent (Genesis 3:1–14)
¡=Ơ=
-'+ V ! K ! !% 6 i !¡+ # 4 !¡+ T+ ] ! :/ Q # !k f ] '! ' # K14 ' + K:/ !% 6 i ! # 4 ! # ª0 '' K18 6 % 'V -'+ V !¡= ª-'+ V !¡= k 1 ! ^! 4 !¡+ T+ ] ! :/ Q # ª-'+ V ! ! Q !% 6 i !¡+ T+ ] ! :/ Q # ª-'+ V !¡= 'k 1 + :/ 4 ! # ¡= 'k 1 + !: / !% 6 i ! # ª-'+ V !¡= k 1 ! ^! !k f ] C :f =L)+ ] !¡+ # -') + ] !¡+ T+ ] ! :/ Q # ª-'+ V ! -'+ V !¡= K1 1 + K:/ !] ! # ª-'+ V !¡= -k 1 ! ^! ª!/ % + / K18 6 % !k 4 #
Vocabulary
63
Vocabulary here: best untranslated (see Unit 8, Grammar point 2) maidservant, slavegirl bring (p) definite direct object marker* vessels
(singular:
because (also: that, indeed, rather, when, if; to be discussed in later units) we want/wanted (usually followed by the inseparable preposition , which remains untranslated)†
C
(they) said† no; not (we) know/knew† (you, masculine singular) stole† (he) said† (I) stole† (you, feminine singular) stole† (she) said† who; which (you, masculine plural) stole† they (m) (we) stole† now war * See Grammar point 3. † See Grammar point 2.
'! ' # !% 6 f K ! ¡= '+ V ) -'+ V 'V K18 6 % K:/ + K14 ' k 1 E :/ 'k 1 E k 1 E !: / :f -k 1 E !] ! K1 1 E !k 4 !/ % + /
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Unit Six
Grammar points 1. The Biblical Hebrew verbal system Until now, we have for the most part been reading texts without verbs (with a few
:/ Q #
exceptions like ). However, Biblical Hebrew is very much a verb-centred language, and in the story above we have started to encounter them in larger numbers for the first time. Before we take a detailed look at the verbs presented in the story, there are a few key points that you need to know about the Biblical Hebrew verbal system. A. Roots Biblical Hebrew verbs (as well as many nouns) are based around a system of triliteral (three-letter) consonantal roots, each of which has a basic meaning of its own; each root can be combined with different vowels, prefixes, and suffixes, to create different specific meanings. You’ve already encountered roots in some of the nouns that we’ve
T+ /
/+
T
is the three consonants , , and , in that learned: for example, the root of order. Each root is typically represented by the three consonants with a dot separating each one, e.g.
T+/. Roots are not actual words, just abstractions based on the
fact that we can see the same three consonants appearing over and over in the same order in various words that all have a related meaning. For example, the root
T+/
means something to do with the concept of ‘king’, ‘kingdom’, ‘royalty’, or ‘ruling’, and appears in a variety of different nouns and verbs, which through the use of different vowel patterns, prefixes, and suffixes, all convey different meanings that are somehow connected to this basic concept. Look at this selection of different nouns and verbs with the root
T+/: he ruled
he caused someone to rule he was caused to rule
T+ / T'+ / ! T+ / !
king queen kingdom
T+ / !V + / =K)+ /
The fact that Biblical Hebrew is based on this root system is actually a huge advantage for you as a student. This is because when you encounter a new word, if you recognize the root there’s a very good chance that you’ll be able to work out what it means by combining the meaning of the root with the information provided to you by the various vowel patterns, prefixes, and suffixes with which it’s combined. The way in which this works will become clear over the next few units.
1. The Biblical Hebrew verbal system
65
B. Conjugations Hebrew verbs are formed by slotting a given root into a specific combination of vowels, prefixes, and suffixes in order to provide the reader or listener with the following information about the action in question:
Tense: When an action happens i. Past ii. Present iii. Future
Aspect: How an action happens, e.g. did it occur once or many times; was it complete or in progress?
Biblical Hebrew has several conjugations (verbal patterns), each of which is used to indicate a different tense and/or aspect. The main conjugations are the qaVal, yiqVol, wayyiqVol, weqaVal, volitives, infinitives, and participles. Don’t try to memorize these yet; we’ll examine them over the course of many units! Within each conjugation, any given verb conjugates (changes shape by the addition of prefixes and/or suffixes) in order to give the reader or listener the following information about the subject (the person or thing doing the action of the verb):
Person (who is doing the action) i. First person (the speaker/speakers) ii. Second person (the person being addressed) iii. Third person (someone else)
Gender i. Masculine ii. Feminine iii. Common (both masculine and feminine combined)
Number i. ii.
Singular Plural (there are no dual verbs in Biblical Hebrew)
The closest English analogy to Biblical Hebrew conjugations is tenses (i.e. past, present, future). However, Biblical Hebrew conjugations don’t work in exactly the same way as English (or Spanish, French, German, etc.) tenses, so the analogy is not perfect. For example, the same Biblical Hebrew conjugation may be used to indicate past, present, and future actions, whereas in European languages, the past tense is used only to indicate past actions, the present tense to indicate present actions, etc. Don’t worry about
66
Unit Six
this, as we’ll look at the uses of each Biblical Hebrew conjugation in turn so that you’ll become familiar with them.
I
f you’ve studied Romance languages before, note that the term conjugation in Biblical Hebrew grammar doesn’t mean the same thing as the term conjugation in e.g. French, Spanish, or Latin.
C. Stems The final key feature of the Biblical Hebrew verbal system is called the stem (also known by the Hebrew term binyan, meaning ‘construction’ or ‘building’).
A stem is a group of verbs that all resemble each other in that they have the same vowel patterns, prefixes, etc. There are seven major verbal stems in Biblical Hebrew. In this unit we’ll start learning the first stem, called the qal, Hebrew for ‘light’ or ‘easy’ – a nice place to begin! Don’t worry about the other stems yet; we’ll study them later. If you’ve studied European languages before, just note for now that the term stem in Biblical Hebrew grammar doesn’t mean the same thing as the term stem in e.g. Latin or Greek. The uses of the various Biblical Hebrew stems will become apparent when we begin to examine them further on in the course.
2. The qal qaVal The verbs that you saw in the story all belong to the qal stem and the qaHal conjugation (also known as the suffix conjugation or perfect). In a nutshell, this conjugation is typically used for various types of complete, usually past, actions, though it can sometimes be used for present and even future actions as well. We’ll first look at how this conjugation is formed, and then discuss its uses in more detail. A. Forming the qal qaval
As mentioned, each conjugation has different forms indicating the person, gender, and number of the subject. In the case of the qaHal conjugation, this is indicated by suffixes. (This is the reason that some grammarians call the qaHal the ‘suffix conjugation’.) The suffixes are attached to the verbal root, which is pointed with A-class vowels. The traditional arrangement of the conjugation starts with the third person masculine singular (‘he’) form because this is the simplest form, with no suffixes.
2. The qal qatal ˙
67
A chart showing all of the verb forms in a conjugation is called a paradigm.1 The qal qaHal paradigm is shown below. For now we’ll concentrate on strong (standard, regular) roots. Later in the course we’ll look at weak roots, which differ from the strong patterns because they contain gutturals or other problematic letters that wreak havoc by causing pointing and other changes. The verb used to illustrate the conjugation is the model root , which means ‘kill’. This verb is not actually very common in Biblical Hebrew, but is useful for illustrating conjugations because it has no gutturals, begadkefat letters, or other problematic consonants. (The name of the conjugation, qaHal, is actually just a transliteration of the third person masculine singular form of this root.) Each form is accompanied by a label consisting of a number and two letters. The numerals 1, 2, and 3 represent the person (first, second, third), the first letter indicates number (m = masculine; f = feminine; c = common), and the second letter indicates number (s = singular; p = plural). You can then use this paradigm as a model for forming other verbs; all qaHal verbs of the qal stem with strong roots conjugate (change their form) in exactly the same way. (Don’t worry about whether a given verb belongs to this conjugation – all the new verbs introduced in this unit do!)
+&9
Qal qaVal Plural
Singular
+& 9 K+& 9 they killed
3ms
he killed 3cp
!+ & 9
3fs
she killed
-k + & 9
2mp
you killed
0k + & 9 we killed
1
2ms
you killed 2fp
you killed
K1+ & 9
k + & 9 k + & 9
2fs
you killed 1cp
'k + & 9
1cs
I killed
The term paradigm is not restricted to verbs, but can also refer to a chart of different noun or adjective forms, as you’ll see in later units.
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Unit Six
Points to note: The English translation given below each form is just a rough guide to the meaning; as we’ll see below, each of these forms could potentially be translated in various other ways depending on the context. The first person singular and plural, and the third person plural, have common gender. In contrast to English, the second person has separate masculine and feminine forms. In Hebrew the person, gender, and number are indicated in the verb, so there’s
' 1 !] !
no need to use pronouns (e.g. , ) in conjunction with them, except for emphasis. If one of the root consonants is a begadkefat letter, remember to add the weak dagesh as normal, according to the rules that you have learned. The 3fs and 3cp forms have a vertical line to the left of the qameG pointing the first syllable. This line is called a meteg (literally meaning ‘bridle’) and it’s there to tell you that, contrary to appearances, the first syllable is open, and should be read as the tone-long vowel qameG rather therefore the symbol than as the short vowel qameG FaHuf. In other words, just like a bridle on a horse, the job of the meteg is to say, ‘Woah there, reader! Don’t just assume that this is a qameG FaHuf – stop a minute to think about it!’ Unfortunately, in the Hebrew Bible the meteg is not used consistently in 3fs and 3cp qal qaHal forms, but you should use it whenever you translate such a form into Biblical Hebrew. Note also that because the syllable with meteg is open, a begadkefat letter immediately following it does not take weak dagesh, e.g. ‘she wrote’; ‘they wrote’. Note that the 2fs form ends in two consonants, which is unexpected because it violates the normal rules of Biblical Hebrew syllable structure. Note also that the final consonant is pointed with a silent shewa, which is unusual (with the exception of ). The 2ms, 2fs, 1cs, and 1cp forms are all stressed on the penultimate syllable. Note that all these forms have a consonantal suffix (suffix beginning with a consonant). The 3fs and 3cp forms have a vocal shewa pointing the second syllable. Note that these two forms have a vocalic suffix (suffix beginning with a vowel). If the first radical (root letter) is a guttural, the first syllable of the 2mp and 2fp forms is pointed (as expected) with FaHef pataF instead of vocal shewa, . e.g. Similarly, if the second radical is a guttural, the second syllable of the 3fs
ß
! = V
K = V
T
-k : /
and 3cp forms is pointed with FaHef pataF instead of vocal shewa, e.g.
!+ f ‘she asked’, from the root +f.
2. The qal qatal ˙
1
If the third radical is , this assimilates into the 1cp suffix and is indicated by a strong dagesh; moreover, the preceding radical is not pointed with silent ‘we gave’. shewa, e.g. The 1cs form of the root ‘give’ is , which is irregular (the assimilates into the first consonant of the suffix).
K^= 1
69
B. Uses of the qaval
0=1
'k = 1
1
404 See Reference grammar B1 for summary
The qaHal (not just of the qal stem, but also of all stems to be studied subsequently) is commonly used in the following ways: i. Preterite actions The most common use of the qaHal is to convey a one-off action that took place at some point in the past. In this respect it’s comparable to the English preterite tense (also called the ‘past simple’), e.g. ‘he said’, ‘he knew’, ‘he stole’. However, the qaHal with this type of meaning is used less widely than the English preterite: it’s chiefly used in a few specific contexts, shown below: a.
+ (see Grammar point 2C), e.g.: -'+ V !¡= 'k 1 +
Immediately following the negative particle
I did not steal the vessels. b.
In contexts involving a contrast with the previous clause (part of a sentence), such as following the conjunction waw when it means ‘but’ or ‘whereas’, e.g.:
-'+ V !¡= K1 1 + K:/ !] ! # But they said, ‘We did not steal the vessels!’ c.
Following a new subject, often in order to highlight a contrast with a previous subject, e.g.:
ª-'+ V !¡= k 1 ! ^! 4 !¡+ T+ ] ! :/ Q # ª-'+ V !¡= 'k 1 + :/ 4 ! # And the king said to the servant, ‘Look here, you stole the vessels!’ But the servant said, ‘I did not steal the vessels!’ d.
Following a conjunction (word that links two clauses or sentences) such as ‘who’, ‘which’; ‘if’, ‘when’, ‘as’, e.g.: ‘because’, ‘that’;
:f :f V -'] 4 & ] !¡= K+) :f -') + ] !
the kings who ate the delicacies
'V
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Unit Six
ii. Present perfect This usage corresponds to the English present perfect, i.e. ‘I have stolen’, ‘I have said’. It’s used to convey an action that happened at some unspecified point in the past and has an effect on the present. It can be difficult to distinguish this usage from the preterite, and often a qaHal may be translated in either way, as in:
-'+ V !¡= k 1 ! ^! ‘Look here, you have stolen the vessels!’ Or: ‘Look here, you stole the vessels!’ iii. Pluperfect The qaHal is often used to indicate a past action that was already finished by the time that the main past action of the sentence took place. This corresponds to the English pluperfect, i.e. ‘he had stolen’, ‘he had said’. In such cases the qaHal follows its subject, ‘because’; ‘that’, ‘who’; which is usually introduced by the conjunction ‘which’, or the conjunction waw meaning ‘now’, e.g.:
'V
:f
-'+ V !¡= 1 E 4 ! 'V T+ ] ! :/ Q # 2
And the king said that2 the servant had stolen the vessels. iv. Present states Although the qaHal is most commonly found in past tense contexts, it may be found in present (and even occasionally future) ones as well. The most common non-past use of the qaHal is to convey mental and emotional states, such as loving, hating, knowing, or wanting. In this respect the qaHal actually corresponds to an English present tense rather than a past tense, which may take some getting used to. In the case of such verbs, the context determines whether the qaHal has a past or present meaning, because technically it could have either. You saw two examples of this in the story:
ª0 '' K18 6 % 'V -'+ V !¡= K ! ‘Bring the vessels, for we want wine!’
ª-'+ V ! ! Q K14 ' + ‘We don’t know where the vessels are.’ So far these are the only two verbs we’ve encountered that may be used in this way, but we’ll encounter others as the course continues.
2
See Unit 8, Grammar point 3 for an explanation of this use of
'V
.
3. The definite direct object marker
¡= Ơ=
71
Finally, the qaHal may be used in a variety of future contexts. These include actions that the speaker or writer has decided to perform but hasn’t yet carried out; actions that started in the past but will continue into the future; future perfect actions (i.e. ‘he will have eaten the food by the time we get home’); and in dreams and prophecies. Don’t worry about these for now – they’re much less common than the uses discussed above, and will be pointed out when you come across them. C. Negating the qaval
+
(meaning In order to negate (make negative) a qaVal verb, the negative particle ‘no’ or ‘not’) is placed immediately before it. In the story above you saw several examples of this, e.g.:
-'+ V !¡= K1 1 + ‘We did not steal the vessels!’
3. The definite direct object marker
¡=Ơ=
Direct object is the term used to refer to the noun that suffers the action of the verb in a sentence. For example, in the following sentence, cause it’s the one being stolen:
-'+ V is the direct object be-
-'+ V 1 E 4 ! # Now the servant had stolen vessels. In Biblical Hebrew the direct object usually comes after the verb, as in the above example. However, if the subject comes after the verb (as it often does), the direct object comes immediately after the subject, e.g.:
-'+ V 4 ! 1 E The servant stole vessels. If the direct object is prefixed by the definite article, it’s immediately preceded by the definite . This marker is frequently direct object marker (also called accusative marker) , e.g.: joined to the direct object with maqqef and pointed with segol, i.e.
=
¡=
-'+ V !¡= 4 ! 1 E The servant stole the vessels. This can take some getting used to because it doesn’t have a direct English equivalent. The following illustrations help to show you how important it is to make sure you can
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Unit Six
¡= can help you with this. In the picture on the left, 2K_! is the subject while -% X ! (preceded ) is the direct object. In the picture on the right, it’s the opposite! by ¡= tell the difference between the subject and the direct object, and how
-% X !¡= 2K_! +)
2K_!¡= -% X ! +)
The horse ate the bread.
The bread ate the horse.
4. Parsing verbs
419 See Reference grammar D1 for summary
Parsing means ‘grammatically analysing’. When studying Biblical Hebrew, parsing is a very common method of working out which grammatical forms you are dealing with (noun, verb, conjugation, person, gender, number, etc.). Therefore it’s good to get into the practice of parsing new words as soon as possible, as this will help you to understand and translate. All different parts of speech can be parsed, but let’s start with verbs. Parsing a verb consists of listing the following information: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Verb (as opposed to other parts of speech, e.g. noun, preposition, etc.) Stem (so far we’ve only done the qal, so this is easy for now) Conjugation (again, so far we’ve only done the qaHal) Person Gender Number Root (commonly indicated by the symbol √) Translation
Let’s see an example of how parsing works, using the verb
!: / 1. 2. 3.
Verb Qal QaHal
!: / :
Exercises
4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
73
3rd Feminine Singular √ ‘(she) said’
:/
If this seems daunting, the following phrase should help you remember the list of what to include in parsing. Each of the highlighted letters represents the first letter of each point on the list, i.e. very = verb; serious = stem, etc. Very Serious Condition – Pagan Riots Today! Moreover, as you practise parsing you’ll quickly find that it comes more and more naturally to you and soon you’ll be able to do it automatically. We’ll look at parsing other parts of speech later in the course.
Exercises 1.
Parse the qaHal verbs in the story above.
2.
Insert the qal qaHal form indicated in brackets into the following sentences, and translate each completed sentence into English.
!V + ] ! # T+ ] ! (3cp √ :/) __________ -'+ V ! ! Q (1cp √ 3 ') __________ + # 0'' C (1cp √ 76%) 'V (1cs √ 3 ') __________ 4 !¡+ T+ ] ! :/ Q # -'+ V !¡= (2ms √ 1E) __________ + __________ !% 6 i !¡X !V + ] ! (3fs √ :/) __________ -= (2fs √ %9+ ‘take’) __________ + 'V (1cs √ 3 ') !¡+ T+ ] ! :/ Q # (1cs √ 3 ') __________ -') + ] -'+ V !¡= (2mp √ 1E) __________ 'V -= -' 4 ! (3cp √ 1E) __________ + 'V __________
3
.1
.2
.3
4
3 4
Here: ‘that’. ‘them’ (see Unit 17).
.4
.5
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Unit Six
+ # -') + ] ! (3cp √ f' ‘sit’; ‘live’) __________ : G (3cp √ :/) =L)+ ] !¡+ !V + ] ! (3fs √ :/) __________ -'+ V !¡= (2fp √ %9+) __________ ! ^! __________ + =L)+ ] ! (3cp √ :/) __________ -': G !¡= (1cp √ ! ‘like’; ‘love’) __________ :f (2fs √ :/) !/ % + / C (1cp √ 76%) __________ !k 4 #
__________
3.
.6
.7
.8
.9
Translate the following paragraph into Biblical Hebrew. Now (lit.: and) the horse had taken the fruit and the meat and the bread, but the horse had not stolen the vessels. The horse did not know where the vessels [were]. But the horse said to the camels and to the [female] donkeys, ‘[You] have taken the vessels!’ because [he] did not like the camels and the donkeys. The camels and the donkeys had not stolen the vessels, but they ate the fruit and the meat and the bread because they liked the food and [they] did not like the horse.
The serpent (Genesis 3:1–14) This text describes how a serpent tempted Eve and her husband to eat the forbidden fruit of the Tree of Knowledge. Note: here and in future vocabularies, verb types that we have studied will be parsed, whereas verb types that we haven’t yet studied will simply be translated.
-'!Y :/ ¡' V 5 !i !¡+ :/ Q # -K:4 ! '! f% ^! # 3:1 ': a / f% ^!¡+ !i ! :/ k # 3:2 ª0 E! 74 +V/ K+) = + -'!Y :/ 0 E!¡TL= C :f 74 ! ': a /K 3:3 ª+) 1 0 E!¡7 4 =L/¡+ !i !¡+ f% ^! :/ Q # 3:4 ª0K=/ k¡0 a K+) = + :/ Q # 3:13 ªIf' +¡ E 0k k # +) k # %d k # 3:6 ª0K=/ k f% ^! !i ! :/ k # ='g 4 =O¡!/ !i + -'!Y ! #! ' ª!k :K: f% ^!¡+ -'!Y ! L! ' :/ Q # 3:14 ª' 1' i ! ª- !¡= f: ' # 3:24
Vocabulary
75
Vocabulary serpent (he) was cunning is it indeed so that? you (mp) must eat every (here: any) tree/trees (of) and (she) said we may eat lest you (mp) die you will indeed die and (she) took and (she) ate and (she) gave also her husband what [is] this? you (fs) did/have done (he) tricked me cursed you (ms) and (he) banished
f% 1 ! '! -K:4 ¡'V 5 K+) k (g) + V 74 :/ k # +) 1 0K=/ k¡0 a 0K=/ k =L/ %d k # +) k # 0k k # ¡- E *If' =O¡!/ ='g 4 ' 1' i ! :K: !k f: ' #
3:1
3:2
3:3 3:4 3:6
3:13
3:14
3:24
* Note that the final consonant is pointed with what looks like a dagesh. This is called a mappiq and will be discussed in Unit 14, Grammar point 1. It has no effect on the pronunciation and you don’t need to worry about it for now.
Unit Seven
Contents
!/ % + ] ! ‘The war’ The qal yiqHol Cain and Abel (Genesis 4:2–11)
!/ % + ] ! ªf C :'4 !¡= 5 :g fKV T+ / :/ Q # :'4 !¡= 5 :g = ') '+¡'L T+ ] ! :/ Q # ¡= V+ -L =V + / :/ k # ªf C ¡= ' V + = ') '+¡'L T+ ] ! :/ Q # ª-4 ! +)' ! !¡= 5 :g1 -') + ] !¡+ ) K:/ Q # ª-4 ! ¡= K6: g = ') '+¡'L T+ ] ! :/ Q # ªf C TY/ 1 =L)+ ] !¡+ ) ! 1: / k # ªf C +)' ! ! ! 1) Y / = ') '+¡'L T+ ] ! :/ Q # ª7: C T+ ] ! 9 c ! ! Q 2K_! :/ Q # ª7: -'+ ) K 1 ' =L)+ ] ! # -') + ] ! # -L+f f : ' ª!/ % + / Kf: ' - #
Vocabulary
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Vocabulary Ethiopia the king of Ethiopia (I) will burn (can also mean am burning, can burn, could burn, used to burn)*; often accompanied by ‘with fire (lit.: with the fire)’
fKV fKV T+ / 5 :g
f C fire
(you ms) will burn* (and) (she) said Edom (biblical land bordering on Israel) the queen of Edom (I) will capture* (you fs) will capture* all (also every)
f 5 :g k :/ k # -L -L =V + / V+ ' V + k ¡+V (f)
Note: this word is unstressed, and therefore the vowel should be read as qameG FaHuf (and) (they m) said (we) will burn* (you mp) will burn* (and) (they f) said (we) will rule* (you fp) will rule* (he) seeks* peace (they m) steal* (they m) seek* * See Grammar point 1.
K:/ Q # 5 :g 1 K6: g k ! 1: / k # TY/ 1 ! 1) Y / k f : ' -L+f K 1 ' Kf: '
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Grammar points The qal yiqVol The yiqVol (also called the prefix conjugation or imperfect) is the next verbal conjugation that we’ll look at. In both its form and its function, it may be helpul to think of the yiqHol as the opposite or mirror image of the qaHal.
In contrast to the qaHal, the yiqHol is formed by adding prefixes to the root. (This is the reason that it’s also called the ‘prefix conjugation’). While the qaHal is used primarily for preterite and other completed actions, the yiqHol is typically used to denote unfinished, repeated, and modal actions in the present, future, and past (see Grammar point 1B for details).
A. Forming the qal yiqvol Here’s the full yiqHol paradigm (note that, as in the qaHal, the name of the yiqHol conjugation is simply the 3ms form): Qal yiqVol Plural
K+& 9 '
Singular
they kill/will kill/would kill, etc.
! 1+ & 9 k
he kills/will kill/would kill, etc.
we kill/will kill/would kill, etc.
1
+&9 k
2mp
2ms
you kill/will kill/would kill, etc.
'+ & 9 k
2fp
you kill/will kill/would kill, etc.
+&9 1
3fs
she kills/will kill/would kill, etc.
you kill/will kill/would kill, etc.
! 1+ & 9 k
3ms
1
+&9 k
3fp
they kill/will kill/would kill, etc.
K+& 9 k
+&9 '
3mp
2fs
you kill/will kill/would kill, etc.
+&9
1cp
I kill/will kill/would kill, etc.
See Grammar point 1B for the full range of possible meanings of the yiqHol.
1cs
The qal yiqtol ˙
79
Points to note: All yiqHol forms have a prefix, including the 3ms (unlike the qaHal, in which the 3ms is unsuffixed). The characteristic vowels of the yiqHol are Fireq in the first syllable and Folem in the second. However, in the 1cs the Fireq in the first syllable is replaced by segol. The 3fs and 2ms forms are identical. (Don’t worry, context will distinguish them!) In contrast to the qaHal, the yiqHol has distinct 3mp and 3fp forms. The 3fp and 2fp forms are identical. (Again, context will distinguish them!) The 2fs, 3mp, 3fp, 2mp, and 2fp have a suffix as well as a prefix. The 2fs, 3mp, and 2mp suffix is vocalic, which means that the syllable structure changes, causing pretonic reduction. In the 2/3fp the tone is on the penultimate syllable. Remember to insert weak dagesh according to the normal rules if the root has one or more begadkefat letters. If the second or third radical is a guttural, the unsuffixed forms have pataF
instead of Folem in the second syllable, e.g.
3/ f '
+ f ' ‘he asks/will ask/used
to ask’, ‘he hears/will hear/used to hear’. If the second or third radical is a guttural, this is pointed with FaHef pataF instead of vocal shewa in the 2fs, 3mp, and 2mp, e.g. ask/will ask/used to ask’.
B. Uses of the yiqvol
'+ f k ‘you (fs)
404 See Reference grammar B2 for summary
Like the qaHal, the yiqHol (in all stems, not just in the qal) has a variety of uses. It can be useful to think of the primary function of the yiqHol as the expression of unfinished, repeated, and modal (see below for explanation) events in any tense. Within this broad definition, here are its most common uses: i. Future actions The yiqHol is commonly used to indicate planned or predicted future actions, equivalent to English ‘shall’, ‘will’, ‘going to’:
:'4 !¡= 5 :g fKV T+ / :/ Q # And the king of Ethiopia said, ‘I shall burn the city!’
ª:'4 !¡= 5 :g = ') '+¡'L T+ ] ! :/ Q # And the king said, ‘Woe is me, for you are going to burn the city!’
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This category includes the relative future, i.e. actions that in English are conveyed by ‘was/were going to’, e.g.:
ª:'4 !¡= 5 :g ' 'V T+ ] ! :/ Q # And the king said that he was going to burn the city. ii. Habitual actions in the past, present, or future The yiqHol is very frequently employed to indicate habitual actions (actions that are repeated on multiple occasions). This usage is often found in present tense contexts, usually in direct speech; this meaning may not seem too surprising, as an action that happens habitually can be thought of as a logical extension of an action that is happening at the present moment:
-'+ ) K 1 ' =L)+ ] ! # -') + ] ! # ‘But the kings and the queens steal vessels.’ (i.e. repeatedly) However, the yiqHol is also commonly used to indicate past habitual actions, corresponding to the English ‘used to’. This is one of the most striking, and potentially confusing, aspects of the yiqHol, because the concept of a conjugation that can express past actions as well as present and future ones can seem quite alien to us. However, it might help if you think of this usage as one element of the broader category of habitual actions, regardless of tense. You might also be wondering how you can tell on any given occasion whether a yiqHol has past, present, or future habitual meaning. Fortunately, the context will almost always make this clear: a yiqHol with past meaning will be set within a past context. Below is an example: you can tell that it’s past, clearly indicates this. because the introductory
'! ' # -L'¡+V -'+ V 1 ' 4 ! # +)' ! C 4 '! ' #
And there was a slave in the palace, and the slave used to steal vessels every day. iii. Modal actions in the past, present, or future The yiqHol is also frequently used to indicate various types of modal meanings. Modal is a term for a verb that, instead of just indicating pure action in the past, present, or future, also indicates something about whether the action is desirable, possible, impossible, etc. In English, modalities (the various types of modal meaning) are usually indicated by special modal verbs such as ‘can’, ‘could’, ‘would’, ‘should’, ‘might’, etc. In Biblical Hebrew the yiqHol serves exactly the same function. As in the case of habitual actions, yiqHols conveying modalities may have past, present, or future tense, and only the context will tell you which is the appropriate one. Similarly, only the
The qal yiqtol ˙
81
context will tell you which modality is correct; for example, the yiqHol in the sentence below could be translated in a variety of ways depending on the context (in addition, of course, to the other non-modal translations described above).
:'4 !¡= 5 :g I can/should/might/would burn the city. iv. Commands and requests The yiqHol can be used to denote commands and requests. These are frequently in the second person, as in the following example:
-L+f Kf: k Seek peace! But they may also be in the third person, in which case they correspond to the English ‘may he/she/they’ or ‘let him/her/them’. In such cases the yiqHol almost always appears before the subject, if there is one; this can help to distinguish it from other uses of the yiqHol, in which the subject may sometimes precede the verb.
-L+f -') + ] ! Kf: ' Let the kings seek peace! Finally, the yiqHol with command meaning may be in the first person plural, in which case it corresponds to the English ‘let’s’:
:'4 !¡= 5 :g 1 -') + ] ! K:/ Q # And the kings said, ‘Let’s burn the city!’ v. Other uses On rare occasions the yiqHol is used in other ways. For example, sometimes in dialogue it can be used to indicate an action in progress at the moment of speech, e.g. ‘Where are you going?’ This usage is typically restricted to questions. (Such present progressive actions are more typically conveyed by the active participle, to be discussed in Unit 20). Similarly, sometimes it appears in preterite contexts, where one would usually find the qaHal. Don’t worry too much about these less common usages; they’ll be pointed out as they occur in this course. It may seem that the yiqHol can be used in a bewildering array of completely different and incongruous contexts, and you might be wondering how you’ll ever be able to distinguish all of these different uses. Indeed, it can take a while to get used to the idea that a single conjugation commonly appears in past, present, future, modal, and command
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contexts. Take heart, however: the more Biblical Hebrew you read, the easier it will get; the context will nearly always make it quite clear which is the appropriate meaning, and with time you’ll become skilled in recognizing the correct interpretation(s) of a yiqHol in any given instance. C. Negating the yiqvol Like the qaHal, the yiqHol is negated by placing the particle
+ in front of it:
:'4 !¡= 5 :g + ‘I shall not burn the city!’
Exercises 1.
Locate and parse the qaHal and yiqHol verbs in the following biblical extracts.
'k + ) + -% + ' 1 (1 Kings 1:5) TY/ ' f C (Leviticus 20:14) L= K6: g ! :'4¡= 'k ) +¡ E (2 Samuel 12:27) - '] + (Exodus 20:15) 1 k ^! ' 1 $ C k : / - # (Judges 17:2) 52 V !¡! ' T+ /¡' V (1 Samuel 12:12) TY/ 'k f : G (Psalms 34:5) ! #! '¡= k !k # (1 Samuel 23:17) TY/ K V + ' (2 Chronicles 32:18) :'4 !¡= (Deuteronomy 9:9)
2
3
4
5
2
3
4 5
‘him’ (see Unit 17).
- '] ! :'4 ' 1 $
‘the city of water(s)’;
‘my ears’. ‘you (ms)’ (see Unit 16).
- '/ - '/ =
.
.1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 .10
Exercises
2.
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Insert the correct yiqHol form of the root provided in brackets into each of the following biblical extracts. Translate each completed extract into English.
f C (2ms √ 5:g) __________ -!' = V : /¡= # 6
.1
(Joshua 11:6)
:/f ‘guard’; ‘keep’) __________ U'd %¡= # (Joshua 18:6) (2mp √ =V ‘write’) __________ -k C (3ms √ 5:g) __________ =L+ 4 (Psalms 46:10) f ' 1 (1cs √ )+) __________¡ 0a (2 Samuel 12:28) :'4 !¡= (3mp √ % $ ‘sacrifice’) __________ (Hosea 8:13) :g (Exodus 15:18) (3ms √ T+/) __________ ! #! ' (Psalms 78:7) (3mp √ %)f ‘forget’) __________ + # (1cp √ 5:g) __________¡0a (Judges 14:15) T=L (Ezekiel 23:27) L3¡ (2fs √ :)$ ‘remember’) __________ + 7
(Psalms 119:8) (1cs √
8
9
10
11
12
3.
.2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 .10
Translate the following paragraph into Biblical Hebrew. The king said to the queen, ‘Woe is me, because the kings and the queens seek war, whereas (lit.: and/but) I seek peace.’ But the queen said, ‘Also I shall seek war, for the kings and the queens have stolen the vessels which [I] love. And now you (ms) must capture the palaces, and also [you (ms)] must burn the cities, and also [you (ms)] must capture the people, and also [you (ms)] must rule in the lands.’ But the king said, ‘[I] do not want the lands, because [I] want only the vessels!’
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
‘their chariots’. ‘your statutes’. ‘you (mp)’ (see Unit 16). ‘chariots’. ‘lest’. ‘you (fs, direct object)’ (see Unit 17). ‘again’; ‘any more’.
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Cain and Abel (Genesis 4:2-11) This is the story of the first brothers, Adam and Eve’s sons Cain and Abel.
0 '9 Q # 4:3 ª!/ 3 ! '! 0 '9 # 0 8 !4 : + !¡' ! ' # 4:2 3f Q # K!¡- ' ! + ! # 4:4 ª! #!'+ !% 1/ !/ ! ': a / + L=% 1/¡+ # 0 '9¡+ # 4:5 ªL=% 1/¡+ # + !¡ + ! #! ' ! #! ' :/ Q # 4:9 ªK! : ! Q # + !¡ + 0 '9 -9 Q # 4:8 ª!4 f ª=' g 4 !/ :/ Q # 4:10 ª'k 4 ' + :/ Q # + ! ' 0 '9¡+ ª!/ !¡0 / !k :K: !k 4 # 4:11 13
14
Vocabulary (he) brought he (and) (he) looked upon (favourably) his offering (he) looked upon (favourably) (and) (he) rose up (and) (he) killed him where (=
! Q )
what (you ms) did/have done
13 14
Here: ‘upon’. Here: ‘against’.
' ! K! 3f Q # L=% 1/ !4 f
4:4
Abel Cain shepherd (lit.: herder of sheep and goats)
4:5
(he) was worker
-9 Q # K! : ! Q # ' !/ =' g 4
4:8
4:9 4:10
tiller (lit.: worker) of the soil (and) (he) brought offering
+ ! 0 '9 08 !4 :
4:2
! '! 3 !/ 3 Q # !% 1/
4:3
Unit Eight
Contents
$4 ! ‘The goat’
The qal wayyiqHol
'! ' # introducing temporal clauses 'V introducing causal and complement clauses The particle ! ^! #
The flood, part 1 (Genesis 6:6–7:19)
$4 ! :'4 !¡= =L)+ ] ! # -') + ] ! K6: g Q # !k f ] ! ': % '! ' # !V + ] ! # T+ ] ! K%: Q # ª7: K)+ /Q # +)' ! !¡= K V + Q # f C ¡= # 2K_!¡= K f ' -f # ! j !¡+ ! ^! # T+ ] ! : Q # ª=L1L= !¡= # -'X / E! -'+ V !¡= !+ ) $4 ! # ! j ! TL=C $4 +)' ! !¡= T+ ] ! 96 Q # ªK :f !k 4 =L)+ ] !¡+ # -') + ] !¡+ :/ Q # $4 'V -'+ V !¡= -k 1 + ') 'k 4 ' =': K=: ) Q # T+ ] + K%+ 2 Q # ª-= !+ ) ª=L8: !¡+ ) C -L+f '! ' #
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Vocabulary here: no English equivalent; often translated ‘and it came to pass’* after (and) (they) burned† (and) (they) captured† (and) (they) ruled† (and) (they) fled† (and) (he) saw† goat (is/was) eating qal qaHal 3cp √ (also: ‘perish’)
‘go missing’
': % K6: g Q # K V + Q # K)+ / Q # K%: Q # : Q # (p) -' O4 ,(f; g) $4 (fs) !+ ) K 96 Q # 'V !+ ) -= K%+ 2 Q #
(and) (he) visited† here: that‡ qal qaHal 3fs √
'! ' #
+) ‘eat’
them (and) (they) forgave†
(usually followed by the
+ ) K=: ) Q #
inseparable preposition (and) (they) made† Note: this root literally means ‘cut’ but is used idiomatically in conjunction with ‘covenant’ to mean ‘make a covenant’.
=': C
covenant * See Grammar point 2. † See Grammar point 1. ‡ See Grammar point 3.
=': C
1. The qal wayyiqtol ˙
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Grammar points 1. The qal wayyiqVol You’ve already learned two of the basic Biblical Hebrew conjugations, the qaHal and yiqHol. However, there’s also a third conjugation called the wayyiqVol, which actually appears more frequently in biblical narrative than either the qaHal or yiqHol. You saw many examples of the wayyiqHol in the story above. It resembles the qaHal in that it’s used primarily to convey past actions, but its functions are quite different from those of the qaHal. Let’s first look at how to form the wayyiqHol, and then return to its uses. A. Forming the qal wayyiqvol Forming the wayyiqHol is easy; it’s composed of the following elements: Waw + pataF + strong dagesh + yiqHol, i.e.
+&9 Q #
The waw here resembles the conjunction waw, but differs in its pointing and the fact that it appears only as part of the wayyiqHol. This special form of waw has been given many labels by Biblical Hebrew grammarians. One of the most common is the wawconsecutive, which we’ll use in this course; however, it’s also called by other names such as the waw-retentive or (particularly in older grammars) waw-conversive. Here’s the complete paradigm of the wayyiqHol (which, like the qaHal and yiqHol, is named after the 3ms form of the paradigm). In order to identify the correct person, gender, and number of each wayyiqHol form, just look past the waw-consecutive and you’ll see the prefixes of the yiqHol. Don’t be confused by the fact that the wayyiqHol, which is used for preterite actions, is formed with the yiqHol, which is used for ongoing, repeated, present, future, and modal actions – just learn the forms, and then we’ll come back to the meaning. Note also that you’ve already met the wayyiqHol in previous units: the
:/ Q #
'! ' #
and are themselves 3ms qal wayyiqHols, but from very common forms a different type of root from those that we’ve studied so perhaps not immediately recognizable. There have also been quite a few wayyiqHols in the biblical extracts that we’ve been reading; you can identify them by the characteristic prefix of waw + pataF and strong dagesh.
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Qal wayyiqVol Plural
K+& 9 Q #
Singular 3mp
(and) they killed
! 1+ & 9 k #
3fp
2mp
(and) we killed
3fs
+&9 k #
2ms
(and) you killed 2fp
(and) you killed
+&9 ^ #
+&9 k # (and) she killed
(and) you killed
! 1+ & 9 k #
3ms
(and) he killed
(and) they killed
K+& 9 k #
+&9 Q #
'+ & 9 k #
2fs
(and) you killed 1cp
+&9 #
1cs
(and) I killed
Points to note: Because the first consonant of the 1cs is a guttural, it can’t double when prefixed by the waw-consecutive; instead, it undergoes compensatory lengthening and is pointed with qameG. Nothing can come between the waw-consecutive and the rest of the verb. Roots with a guttural deviate from the above paradigm just as they do in the ‘(and) he heard’. yiqHol, e.g.
3/ f Q #
F
rom now on when new qal strong roots in the qal qaHal, yiqHol, or wayyiqHol appear in the stories and biblical texts, they won’t be translated in the vocabulary lists but instead will be parsed, which will allow you to work out the correct meaning in the context. Verbs from stems and root classes that we haven’t yet studied will continue to be translated until they’ve been examined in detail.
B. Uses of the wayyiqvol
405 See Reference grammar B3 for summary
i. Preterite actions The wayyiqHol is generally more straightforward in meaning than the qaHal or yiqHol: it’s typically used to convey sequences of preterite actions, most commonly in narrative (but also in dialogue). Think of it as the conjugation whose main job is to advance
1. The qal wayyiqtol ˙
89
plotlines set in the past: biblical stories (whether narrative or incidents recounted by characters) are typically composed of a chain of wayyiqHols, each one representing a link in the whole story; by contrast, qaHals and yiqHols are used when the narrator or speaker wants to break away from the narrative temporarily in order to provide some relevant information that doesn’t actually progress the main storyline. The literal meaning of the wayyiqHol, ‘and then’, may also help to make its function clear. Biblical Hebrew narrative is often composed of long chains of wayyiqHols, which can continue indefinitely until something interrupts them (see point C below for examples of the kinds of things that may cause interruptions). The waw-consecutive may be translated in a variety of ways depending on what makes the most sense in the context, e.g. ‘then’, ‘so’, ‘and then’, ‘and’, ‘and so’. However, an overly literal translation of such sequences would be full of ‘and then he said . . . and then he went . . . and then he wrote . . . and then they said . . .’, which sounds awkward in English. Therefore, it’s often up to the translator to decide how to interpret these sequences; you might want to vary it a bit, leaving out the ‘and then’ unless the context seems to require it in English. Note that because nothing can separate the waw-consecutive from the rest of the verb, the wayyiqHol always precedes its subject. Similarly, the wayyiqHol cannot be negated; in order to convey a negative preterite action, the qaHal must be used instead (see point C below). Note also that individual wayyiqHol verbs within a sequence need not have the same subject; rather, each one can have a separate subject, without causing the chain to be interrupted. ii. Other types of past action The wayyiqHol can also be used to indicate other types of past action, e.g. present perfect and pluperfect. Don’t worry about these less common uses; the context will usually make clear to you if one of these meanings is intended. C. Differences in usage between qaval and wayyiqvol You may now be wondering what the difference is between the qaHal and wayyiqHol – after all, both are used in preterite contexts, so why is one used sometimes and the other used other times? There are various explanations for this that you can examine in detail at a more advanced level. For now, it may be most helpful to think of the wayyiqHol as the conjugation that serves to advance a storyline, while the qaHal is used in clauses containing interruptions or deviations from this storyline. Such interruptions include the following:
+
negative clauses/sentences introduced by contrast clauses (clauses giving a contrast to what was said previously) introduced by the conjunction waw with the meaning of ‘but’
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background information about events that had happened before the time of the main storyline (i.e. pluperfects) adverbs (words telling you when, where, or how something happened, e.g. ‘there’) direct speech embedded within the narrative (though the wayyiqHol may be used in a ‘mini-narrative’ sequence found inside direct speech).
-f
Let’s look at a few examples. In the following sequence, the wayyiqHol is used in the first case, while the qaHal is used in the second case because the intervening adverb interrupts the narrative chain and ‘blocks’ another wayyiqHol.
-f
K f ' -f # ! j !¡+ !V + ] ! # T+ ] ! K%: Q # The king and the queen fled to the field, and there they lived. In the next example, the first two wayyiqHols advance the storyline, but are interrupted by the direct speech of the king; the narrative then resumes with another sequence of wayyiqHols.
-') + ] !¡+ :/ Q # +)' ! !¡= T+ ] ! 96 Q # -'+ V !¡= -k 1 + ') 'k 4 ' !k 4 =L)+ ] !¡+ # '! ' # =': K=: ) Q # T+ ] + K%+ 2 Q # ª-= !+ ) $4 'V ª=L8: !¡+ ) C -L+f So the king visited the palace and said to the kings and queens, ‘Now I know that you did not steal the vessels, because a goat has eaten them’. Then they forgave the king and made a covenant, and there was peace in all of the lands. In the next example, the initial wayyiqHol is interrupted by a sequence that doesn’t advance the narrative but rather describes what is going on at the same time as the king’s sequential action of seeing. Note that the qaHal at the end of the extract is
:f
(meaning ‘which’) and provides background information (i.e. has preceded by a pluperfect sense); the wayyiqHol could not be used in such a context.
!+ ) $4 ! # ! j ! TL=C $4 ! ^! # T+ ] ! : Q # ªK :f -'+ V !¡= And the king looked, and there was a goat in the middle of the field, and the goat was eating the vessels which had gone missing.
3.
'V introducing causal and complement clauses
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Finally, in the next example the qaHal must be used because it’s preceded by the negative particle, and therefore the wayyiqHol would be impossible.
-'+ V ! = K1 1 + ‘We did not steal the vessels!’
2.
'! ' # introducing temporal clauses
'! ' #, which you’ve already encountered with the meaning ‘and he was’ or ‘and there was’, is the 3ms wayyiqHol form of the root !'!, meaning ‘be’. This root is weak and so conjugates differently from the verbs we’ve studied so far. We won’t examine it thoroughly until Unit 35, but for now it’s useful to learn the form because it’s so common. In addition to its uses that you’ve seen in previous units, it’s commonly found at the beginning of a new section of biblical narrative, immediately preceding a temporal clause (a phrase giving information about when something happens, e.g. ‘after the banquet’, ‘before the war’; temporal means ‘time-related’). In many English in this type of setting is translated as ‘and it came to pass’. Bible translations, However, it doesn’t really have a precise English equivalent and therefore can be left untranslated or simply translated as ‘and’. The narrative then continues with one or more wayyiqHols. You saw an example of this in the story:
'! ' #
=L)+ ] ! # -') + ] ! K6: g Q # !k f ] ! ': % '! ' # f C :'4 !¡= And after the banquet, the kings and queens burned the city.
'V introducing causal and complement clauses In previous units you’ve encountered the particle 'V meaning ‘because’. When 'V has this meaning it’s said to be introducing a causal clause, which is, as the name suggests, a clause (part of a sentence) that indicates the cause of something. However, 'V also 3.
has several other meanings. The most common of these is following verbs of speaking and perception (verbs describing speech or mental and emotional states such as ‘know’, follows such verbs, it usually has the meaning ‘hope’, ‘say’, ‘tell’, and ‘fear’). When appears in this type of of ‘that’, as in ‘I know that he stole the vessels’. When context, it’s said to be introducing a complement clause (also called content clause or object clause). You may be wondering how it’s possible to decide which meaning is following a verb of speaking has on any given occasion. It’s usually quite easy: if or perception, translate it as ‘that’; otherwise, it’s most likely introducing a causal
'V
'V
'V
'V
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clause. Moreover, if you try one translation and it doesn’t seem to make sense, then the other one is probably correct. You can see this in the following extract from the : the first follows a verb of story, which contains examples of both uses of
'k 4 '
'V
'V
perception, ‘I know’, and therefore can be assumed to mean ‘that’, while the second one doesn’t, and therefore more likely means ‘because’.
$4 'V -'+ V !¡= -k 1 + ') 'k 4 ' !k 4 ª-= !+ ) ‘Now I know that you did not steal the vessels, because a goat has eaten them.’
'V can also mean ‘but rather’ and ‘indeed’; these usages will be pointed out as they appear and discussed in later units. As with many other aspects of Biblical Hebrew grammar, context will usually determine which is the right meaning, and as you gain familiarity with the language, it will become easier and easier to distinguish between the various uses.
! ^! # In the story above the particle ! ^! appeared prefixed by the conjunction waw, as ! ^! #. This usage is very common in biblical narrative. It generally appears following a verb of sight or perception, frequently : Q # ‘and he looked/saw’. As with other uses of the particle, translation can be a challenge. A phrase such as ! ^! # : Q # 4. The particle
may be translated in a variety of ways conveying the notion of noteworthiness, e.g. ‘and what should he see but . . .’, ‘and he saw to his surprise’, ‘and he was astonished to see’, or more subtly, ‘and he looked, and there was . . .’ or simply ‘and he saw’ (in addition to the traditional translation, ‘and he looked, and behold . . .’). Some of these possibilities are illustrated in the following excerpt from the story:
! j ! TL=C $4 ! ^! # T+ ] ! : Q # And And And And And
the king saw to his surprise that there was a goat in the middle of the field! the king suddenly saw a goat in the middle of the field! the king looked, and there was a goat in the middle of the field! what did the king see but a goat in the middle of the field! the king looked, and behold, there was a goat in the middle of the field!
! ^! #
may appear in contexts not following a verb of sight or perception. In addition, In such cases the particle still seems to indicate that the speaker or writer saw something
Exercises
93
surprising, dramatic, shocking, or otherwise noteworthy, even though there’s no actual verb indicating this. Therefore, the same types of translations are possible in such cases as well. This is illustrated in the following example from the story in Unit 4:
-% + +) 2K_! ! ^! # 0% + i !¡+ 2K_! Q # ': 6K f K :g K And the horse came to the table, and suddenly the horse was eating bread and meat and honey and fruit!
Exercises 1.
Locate and parse the wayyiqHols in the following biblical extracts. Translate each extract into English.
f C -= K6: g Q # C k) # (Jeremiah 32:10) :6 _ V¡= V+ ^ # (Deuteronomy 2:34) #': 4¡+ ' 1f K%: Q # (1 Kings 2:39) -' 4¡ C TY/ Q # (Genesis 36:32) -L # (1 Kings 21:8) -': 6 2 k) k :V $ Q # (Genesis 8:1) -'!Y K:/ f Q # (Psalms 59:1) = 'C !¡= !Y ! #! '¡= K%V f Q # (1 Samuel 12:9) -!' (Joshua 7:25)
1
2
3
1 2 3
‘his cities’ (see Unit 15). ‘two’ (see Unit 18). ‘their God’ (see Unit 15).
.1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9
94
2.
Unit Eight
Rewrite the following phrases and sentences, adding pointing and changing the qaHal verbs into wayyiqHols whenever possible in order to create a sequential past narrative. Remember not to use the wayyiqHol after particles such as and
:f .
+, 'V ,
!/%+/! ':% '!'# +)'! :
forty units covering all the topics expected in a first-year Biblical Hebrew course, including the Hebrew writing system, pointing rules, nouns and adjectives, parsing, mastery of strong and weak verb paradigms and full attention to syntax clear and detailed grammar explanations supported by plentiful examples an extensive assortment of varied and stimulating exercises designed to reinforce new grammar and develop students’ ability to use Biblical Hebrew actively incorporation of a wide range of genuine biblical texts to familiarize students with the main biblical narrative cycles and to equip them with the ability to read authentic meterial from the earliest stages of learning a free companion website (www.routledge.com/cw/kahn) offering a wealth of additional instructor and student resources, including many extra exercises and biblical texts, flashcards to test knowledge, a vocabulary guide listing words by part of speech, a full answer key with translations of all the stories and biblical texts, a sample syllabus and coursework covering the entire contents of the course and audio recordings of the stories and biblical texts coherent chapter organization to consolidate and reinforce learning consistently at each step of the course grammar summary, two-way glossary and subject index presented at the back of the book for easy access a user-friendly text design with original illustrations and clear presentation of the Hebrew script.
Written by an experienced instructor and extensively trialled at UCL, The Routledge Introductory Course in Biblical Hebrew will be an essential resource for all students beginning to learn Biblical Hebrew. Lily Kahn is Lecturer in Hebrew in the Department of Hebrew and Jewish Studies at University College London. Her publications include Colloquial Yiddish (2012), also published with Routledge, and The Verbal System in Late Enlightenment Hebrew (2009).
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The Routledge Introductory Course in Biblical Hebrew Lily Kahn
First published 2014 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2014 Lily Kahn The right of Lily Kahn to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted by her in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data A catalog record for this book has been requested ISBN: 978-0-415-52479-7 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-415-52480-3 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-85730-5 (ebk) Typeset in Sabon by Graphicraft Limited, Hong Kong
Contents
Acknowledgements
xii
Introduction 1 Introduction to Biblical Hebrew 2 The Hebrew Bible xv 3 About this course xvi
xiv xiv
Unit 1 2 3 4
1 History of the Hebrew writing system Consonants 3 Vowels 7 Handwriting 11
Unit 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
2 Syllables 14 Tone 16 Vowel preferences 17 Shewa (silent and vocal) 18 Dagesh (weak and strong) 20 QameG vs. qameG FaHuf 21 Guttural consonants 22 Quiescent 23
1 1
14
Unit 3
2K_! # T+ ] ! ‘The king and the horse’ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Forming the definite article 27 Use of the definite article 30 Nominal (equational/verbless) sentences Noun–adjective phrases 31 Maqqef 32 Word order in verbal sentences 32 Translating ! ^! 32 Creation, part 1 (Genesis 1:1–13) 34
25 25
31
vi
Contents
Unit 4
36
!k f ] ! ‘The banquet’
1 2 3 4
36 Pointing the conjunction waw 37 Uses of the conjunction waw 40 Prepositions (independent, separable, inseparable) Furtive pataF 45 Creation, part 2 (Genesis 1:14–2:3) 47
41
Unit 5
48
=L1L= # -'X / E ‘Camels and donkeys’ 1 2 3
48
Introduction to nouns 49 Noun gender 49 Noun number (including segolate and geminate nouns) Adam and Eve (Genesis 2:7–22) 60
Unit 6 1 2 3 4
62
-'+ V ! ‘The vessels’ 62 The Biblical Hebrew verbal system 64 The qal qaHal 66 The definite direct object marker ¡=Ơ= Parsing verbs 72 The serpent (Genesis 3:1–14) 74
71
Unit 7 1
!/ % + ] ! ‘The war’ 76 The qal yiqHol 78 Cain and Abel (Genesis 4:2–11)
51
76
84
Unit 8
85
$4 ! ‘The goat’
1 2 3 4
85 The qal wayyiqHol 87 '! ' # introducing temporal clauses 91 'V introducing causal and complement clauses The particle ! ^! # 92 The flood, part 1 (Genesis 6:6–7:19) 94
Unit 9
96
=L1k ] ! ‘The gifts’
1 2 3
96 Forming adjectives 97 + indicating possession 101 Uses of the word +V/¡+V 101 The flood, part 2 (Genesis 8:1–19)
91
103
Contents
Unit 10
104
+L E! ! j ! # 0&d ! ! j ! ‘The small field and the big field’ 1 2 3
vii
Use of adjectives (predicative, attributive, substantive) Parsing adjectives 107 Comparative adjective phrases 107 The tower of Babel (Genesis 11:1–9) 108
104
105
Unit 11
111
0 E! ‘The garden’
1 2 3
111 Demonstrative pronouns 112 Demonstrative adjectives 113 'V as emphatic particle 115 Abraham and Sarah (Genesis 17:15–21:3)
116
Unit 12
117
: C ! ‘The well’
1 2
117 The construct chain 119 Forming the construct state of nouns 120 The binding of Isaac, part 1 (Genesis 22:1–8)
124
Unit 13 1 2
126
+)' ! C 0 '' 0' ‘There’s no wine in the palace’
126
Use of the construct chain 127 The particles f ' and 0' 131 The binding of Isaac, part 2 (Genesis 22:9–17)
133
Unit 14
134
L& + U 1' ' :'% / ‘The price of your wine is not good’ 1 2 3
Possessive suffixes on singular nouns (including mappiq) Use of possessive suffixes 140 'V introducing contrast and temporal clauses 140 Jacob and Esau, part 1 (Genesis 27:1–10) 142
Unit 15 1
144
LC 0 'Q ! :% 2 ‘The wine merchant is a traitor’ Possessive suffixes on plural nouns 146 Jacob and Esau, part 2 (Genesis 27:14–41) 148
Unit 16
': 8 ] ! 0 'Q ! ‘The Egyptian wine’ 1 2
Personal pronouns 152 Gentilic adjectives 153
134 135
144
150 150
viii
3 4 5
Contents
Directive ! 154 Cognate accusative 155 Parsing nouns 155 Jacob and Rachel (Genesis 29:1–20)
157
Unit 17 1 2
159
T+ ] ! ': & f ‘The king’s officers’ 159 Suffixes on prepositions + , C , -4 , = , and definite direct object marker Interrogative ! 163 Jacob, Rachel, and Leah (Genesis 29:21–28)
165
Unit 18 1 2
167
L/ T+ ] / -% + ‘Bread from the King of Moab’ Suffixes on prepositions + , +4 , V , and 0/ 168 Cardinal numerals 170 Joseph and his brothers (Genesis 37:3–34)
1 2 3
180 180
The qal weqaHal 181 Pointing of !/ ‘what’ 184 Conjunctive dagesh 185 The Israelites’ suffering in Egypt (Exodus 1:8–22)
186
Unit 20 1 2 3 4
fG 9 ] + 52 V ‘Money for the temple’ The qal active participle 189 Negating the active participle 194 ! ^! with pronominal suffixes 195 Parsing active participles 195 Moses (Exodus 2:1–10) 198
188 188
Unit 21 1 2 3 4
167
177
Unit 19
T+ ] ! '] 4 & / ‘The king’s delicacies’
161
fG 9 ] ! # 2K_! ‘The horse and the temple’ 200 The qal volitives (cohortative, imperative, jussive) 201 Negative commands with the particle + 204 Masculine singular imperatives with !ß suffix 205 The particle 1 205 The burning bush (Exodus 3:1–10) 206
200
Contents
Unit 22
2K_! ' 3 ‘The horse worshippers’ 1 2 3
209 209
The qal infinitive construct 211 The infinitive construct with subject suffixes 214 Negating the infinitive construct 216 The splitting of the sea (Exodus 14:5–31) 217
Unit 23 1 2
219
' ^! ‘The prophet’ 219 The qal infinitive absolute 221 Purpose clauses with the yiqHol or cohortative Rahab (Joshua 2:1–15) 225
223
Unit 24 1 2 3 4
2K_! :K: ‘The horse is cursed’ 227 The qal passive participle 228 Accents 230 Pausal forms 233 Singular verbs with plural subjects 235 Samson’s wedding, part 1 (Judges 14:1–14)
227
236
Unit 25 1 2
239
T+ ] !¡0 + !i ‘A wife for the prince’ 239 Qal stative verbs 240 Ordinal numerals 244 Samson’s wedding, part 2 (Judges 14:15–19) 247
Unit 26 1 2
249
T+ ] !¡0 C¡= f ‘The prince’s wife’ 249 Object suffixes on verbs (including energic suffixes) 251 Conjunction waw introducing concessive clauses 255 Hannah (1 Samuel 1:1–20) 257
Unit 27
260
L/ Lkf # T+ ] !¡0 C ‘The prince and his wife in Moab’ 1
The nifal 261 The people demand a king (1 Samuel 8:4–19)
:LCC :f +) ! ‘The food in the pit’
260
269
Unit 28 1
ix
272 272
The hifil 274 Samuel anoints David, part 1 (1 Samuel 16:1–7)
281
x
Contents
Unit 29
284
:LCC :f =L/! C ! ‘The beasts in the pit’ 1 2 3
284
The hofal 285 Relative clauses 289 Ketiv/qere 289 Samuel anoints David, part 2 (1 Samuel 16:8–13)
291
Unit 30 1 2
293
L/ T+ ] / ! 1k / ‘A gift from the King of Moab’ The piel 295 Real conditions 300 Solomon’s judgement, part 1 (1 Kings 3:16–22) 303
293
Unit 31 1 2
305
L/ C T+ ] ! ': g ‘The king’s officials in Moab’ 305 The pual 306 Irreal conditions 309 Solomon’s judgement, part 2 (1 Kings 3:23–28) 311
Unit 32 1 2
313
T+ ] ! -L+% ‘The king’s dream’ 313 The hitpael 315 Summary of the seven major stems 321 The Queen of Sheba (1 Kings 10:1–8) 323
Unit 33 1
326
-) % ! ‘The wise man’ 326 I-, II-, and III-guttural roots 327 Elisha and the widow (2 Kings 4:1–7)
332
Unit 34 1 2
335
f C T+ ] ! ‘The king in Sheba’ III- roots 336 Doubly weak roots 337 Jonah, part 1 (Jonah 1:1–6)
335
338
Unit 35 1 2
341
f =V + ] / =L1k / ‘Gifts from the Queen of Sheba’ III-! (originally '/#) roots 342 PetuFa/setuma 346 Jonah, part 2 (Jonah 1:8–2:11)
348
341
Contents
Unit 36 1 2
350
- ': 8 / C 2K_! ‘The horse in Egypt’ I- roots 351 Paragogic 1 352 Ruth, part 1 (Ruth 1:1–7)
350
353
Unit 37 1 2
355
- ': 8 / C T+ ] ! ‘The king in Egypt’ I-1 roots 356 Hapax legomena 359 Ruth, part 2 (Ruth 1:8–16)
355
361
Unit 38 1
363
-'X / E! # 2K_! ‘The horse and the camels’ I-'/# roots 365 Esther, part 1 (Esther 7:1–6)
363
369
Unit 39
371
-': ! C 2K_! ‘The horse in the mountains’ 1 2
Hollow roots 373 The qal passive 378 Esther, part 2 (Esther 7:7–10)
382
-'C : -'X / E ‘Many camels’ Geminate roots 383 Minor stems 387 Daniel (Daniel 1:3–19)
Reference grammar Hebrew–English glossary English–Hebrew glossary Subject index
371
380
Unit 40 1 2
xi
382
390 394 422 437 445
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to the people who have contributed to this book in so many positive ways. I wish to thank Andrea Hartill and Isabelle Cheng at Routledge for their unstinting dedication to the project and for their expert guidance throughout the writing and publication process. I am also very grateful to Geraldine Martin and Helena Power for their great skill and efficiency in the copyediting and production of the volume. I am greatly indebted to Willem Smelik and Sally Gold for introducing me to Biblical Hebrew with such skill and devotion, and to Coralie Gutridge for inspiring me with her verb parsing mnemonic. Special thanks go to Ada Rapoport-Albert for her continual encouragement (as well as for her suggestion that the horse should have a love interest). I also gratefully acknowledge Aaron Rubin, Siam Bhayro, and an anonymous reviewer for their support of this book and for their many helpful comments. I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my Biblical Hebrew students in the Department of Hebrew and Jewish Studies, UCL, who have so kindly class-tested drafts of this textbook over the past few years, providing invaluable feedback and countless insightful contributions. I am extremely grateful to James Holz for the illustrations, as well as for his neverending encouragement, companionship, and numerous excellent suggestions. Finally, I would like to thank Kai Kahn for her constant enthusiasm and support.
Introduction
Contents
Introduction to Biblical Hebrew The Hebrew Bible About this course
1. Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Hebrew is a fascinating language with a rich history spanning 3,000 years. It is a member of the Afro-Asiatic language family, which is a large group of languages spread throughout much of northern Africa and the Middle East. Within this family Hebrew belongs to the Semitic subgroup, which includes many other important ancient languages such as Akkadian (the language of the Babylonian Empire), Aramaic (the language of portions of the Bible and several key biblical translations), Classical Arabic, and Ge‘ez (the language of the Ethiopian Church). The precise origins of Hebrew are not completely clear, but it is thought to have emerged in the Levantine region of Canaan (corresponding roughly to present-day Israel, Palestine, Lebanon, and Syria) in the late second or early first millennium BCE. It is very closely related to other ancient Canaanite dialects then in use in the same region such as Moabite (in present-day Jordan) and Phoenician (the language of a seafaring people from the Canaanite coastal areas). It is also closely related to Ugaritic (from the city-state of Ugarit in modern Syria) and Aramaic (spoken by Aramean tribes in parts of present-day Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Turkey, and Iraq). These languages are known to us from written evidence (clay and stone inscriptions containing e.g. letters, administrative documents, and poetry) from the mid- to late second millennium BCE. These writings reveal these languages to have a high concentration of common features, which has led linguists to classify them together as a subgroup called ‘Northwest Semitic’. We have some evidence of early Hebrew from inscriptions found in the Canaanite region dating from the early first millennium BCE. However, by far the most substantial body of writing in the language is the Hebrew Bible. The texts making up this literary compendium are themselves widely believed to span a period of nearly a thousand years, with the earliest portions possibly dating to as early as 1200 BCE and the latest ones to the last few centuries BCE. The language of these texts is not uniform, but contains many variations that most likely reflect differences in geography, chronology, register, and literary style.
Introduction
xv
Traditionally the language of the Hebrew Bible has been divided into three different types, each reflecting a different phase of biblical history, geography, and/or literary genre. The first type, ‘Archaic Biblical Hebrew’, is made up of certain poetic texts whose linguistic features and style seems to be most clearly rooted in the tradition of more ancient Northwest Semitic languages such as Ugaritic. These texts may date to as early as 1200–900 BCE, though it is possible that they were composed later and that the use of certain archaic elements was a poetic convention outlasting the early historical period. The second type, ‘Standard Biblical Hebrew’, consists of the prose narrative and legal texts of the Pentateuch and Former Prophets (see below), which are believed to date to the so-called ‘monarchic’ or ‘First Temple’ period of ca. 900–586 BCE, when the Israelites had an independent kingdom centred around a temple in Jerusalem. The extent to which this language reflected the spoken idiom of the people is unclear; it may have been a somewhat artificial standard literary language based on the Jerusalem dialect (this can be compared to the concept of ‘the Queen’s English’). The monarchic period ended in ca. 586 BCE when the Babylonian Empire conquered the kingdom, destroyed the Temple, and exiled many of the inhabitants of Jerusalem and the surrounding areas to Babylon. After 537 BCE, when the Babylonian Empire was conquered by Persia, the exiled population was allowed to return to Jerusalem and rebuild the Temple. However, a large diaspora population remained in Babylon and Persia over the next few centuries. The biblical texts written in this ‘Second Temple’ or ‘post-exilic’ period are traditionally categorized as ‘Late Biblical Hebrew’; some of them, e.g. Esther and Daniel (which we will read towards the end of this course), may indicate a Babylonian or Persian setting and a degree of influence from Aramaic (the main language of the Babylonian and Persian empires in the second half of the first millennium BCE) as well as Persian. Alternatively, it is possible that these texts are not all necessarily later than their Standard Biblical Hebrew counterparts, and that many of the linguistic differences may reflect sociological or geographical factors such as the author’s local dialect. The composition of the latest texts included in the biblical canon, which most likely took place in the last few centuries BCE, is considered to mark the end of the biblical phase of Hebrew. The language remained in written use in the centuries immediately following the close of the biblical canon, most prominently in the compendium of Jewish oral law called the Mishna and in rabbinic biblical exegesis called midrash. However, while these texts bear some linguistic similarities to Late Biblical Hebrew, they undeniably represent a very different historical form of the language.
2. The Hebrew Bible The Hebrew Bible is not so much a book as rather a rich compendium of literature spanning almost 1,000 years and including a diverse variety of genres ranging from
xvi
Introduction
dramatic prose narrative to legal codes, prophecy, philosophy, moral guidance, and poetry. Learning to read the Hebrew Bible in the original is a uniquely exciting and rewarding experience because it brings this ancient and yet timeless literary treasurehouse to life with a vividness that no translation can ever capture. This course is designed to provide a sound introduction to some of the key narrative texts of the Hebrew Bible so that, whatever your prior level of experience with biblical stories, you will come away with a solid grounding in its organization and contents, and be able to read and appreciate it independently. The Hebrew Bible is divided into three major sections:
The Pentateuch (also known as the Torah or Five Books of Moses) This section tells the story of the creation of the world and the early history of the Israelite people.
The Prophets This section is divided into the Former Prophets, a narrative chronicle of the preexilic monarchic period, and the Latter Prophets, primarily consisting of poetic texts on prophetic and ethical themes.
The Writings This section contains a diverse mix of texts including both poetry and narrative on a range of historical, ethical, philosophical, and other topics.
Each of these three sections contains a number of individually named books, adding up to twenty-four in total. Each book is divided into chapters, and each chapter is further divided into individual numbered verses. As you progress through this course you will be introduced to many of these books. Check the companion website for a summary of the contents of each biblical book.
3. About this course This course is designed to give the beginning learner a solid grounding in Standard Biblical Hebrew grammar, vocabulary, and texts. It is intended to be used over the course of one academic year, though depending on the setting, pace, and amount of time available it may be spread over two years. It is primarily designed for the classroom, but can be used for self-study as well. By the end of the course the learner will have been familiarized with all of the main points of Biblical Hebrew grammar, have been introduced to the most frequently appearing biblical vocabulary, and have acquired the skills necessary to read the Hebrew Bible independently as well as to progress to intermediate courses and more advanced points of syntax, text-critical, and translation issues.
Introduction
xvii
The course is based around a cycle of graded stories introducing the grammatical points and vocabulary while involving the student in a continuously developing narrative arc. These stories are not based directly on biblical stories, but feature characters and storylines similar to those one would find in the Hebrew Bible. Each story has been designed to present the relevant grammar and vocabulary in a pleasant and memorable way and to make the process of learning Biblical Hebrew painless and enjoyable. Check the companion website for English translations and audio recordings of each story. After each story comes a section explaining the new grammatical points introduced. This is followed by a variety of exercises including transformation and gap-filling tasks, parsing (i.e. grammatically analysing) biblical words, translating English narrative passages into Biblical Hebrew (in the early units, these relate to the introductory stories, but as the course progresses they switch to adaptations of biblical stories), and answering comprehension questions in Biblical Hebrew about the biblical texts at the end of each unit (see below). The exercises are designed to reinforce the language in context, to expose the learner to a wide variety of biblical narratives, and to develop confidence in dealing with authentic texts from a very early stage. Check the companion website for a complete answer key and additional exercises. At the conclusion of each unit, an authentic biblical text is introduced. We will focus on narrative rather than legal or poetic texts, giving learners a clear grounding in some of the most famous stories of the Hebrew Bible in roughly sequential order, starting with the creation story at the beginning of the Pentateuch and continuing through to the books of Esther and Daniel at the end of the Writings. The texts are carefully graded so that in the early units they are heavily abridged (though never rewritten), so as to provide an overview of the story in question without overwhelming the reader with unfamiliar grammar and vocabulary. As the course progresses, the texts gradually increase in complexity and length so that by the middle of the book the reader is studying unadapted biblical narratives, with no changes except the omission of occasional verses to maintain a manageable length. Check the companion website for English translations and audio recordings of each biblical text. The course focuses on Standard Biblical Hebrew prose (though towards the end excerpts from Esther and Daniel give a taste of a somewhat different type of biblical language). This part of the course will not only give learners a good feel for the organization of the Hebrew Bible and close familiarity with a wide selection of key biblical texts and characters, but also the ability to tackle other portions of this endlessly rewarding compendium of writings independently and confidently.
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Unit One
Contents
History of the Hebrew writing system Consonants Vowels Handwriting
1. History of the Hebrew writing system The Hebrew writing system, like the language itself, has a long and fascinating history that can be traced to the beginning of the second millennium BCE. It is likely to derive ultimately from Egyptian hieroglyphs, in which a single word could be represented by a naturalistic picture. For example, this is the Egyptian hieroglyph meaning ‘head’:
This symbol, along with a number of other Egyptian hieroglyphs, is thought to have been adopted by a people speaking a Semitic language, who simplified it to this:
The creators of this writing system, which is called ‘Proto-Sinaitic’, started to use their simplified hieroglyphs not to indicate individual words but rather to denote the first consonant of the word that each hieroglyph had previously represented. Thus, the symbol that had originally meant ‘head’, which sounded something like resh in the
2
Unit One
Semitic language spoken by the writers of Proto-Sinaitic, became generalized to represent not only the word resh, but simply the first consonant of that word, r, wherever it occurred. The original name of each symbol was retained even after it had ceased to represent that word. This Proto-Sinaitic consonantal alphabet is thought to have spread through Canaan and to have been adopted by the speakers of various Semitic languages, where it developed into several variants. One such variant was the Phoenician alphabet, which in turn evolved into the early Hebrew alphabet, called ‘Paleo-Hebrew’. The Phoenician and Paleo-Hebrew alphabets functioned in the same way as their Proto-Sinaitic predecessors, but their symbols were highly simplified and stylized. For example, here’s the Paleo-Hebrew letter resh; it’s still just recognizable as a very basic representation of a head, but it’s much less obvious than the Proto-Sinaitic version.
The Paleo-Hebrew alphabet was written from right to left with no difference between capital and lower case letters. It was probably used to write Hebrew at least until the Babylonian Exile of the early sixth century BCE. In the earliest stages vowels weren’t recorded in writing, but during the course of the First Temple period a few of the consonants started to be used in certain restricted circumstances to indicate the presence of vowels. In the period following the Babylonian Exile many Jews adopted the Aramaic language and began to use its alphabet (which was itself also an offshoot of the Phoenician writing system) to write Hebrew. A variant of this Aramaic alphabet, often called ‘square’ or ‘block’ script, became the standard Hebrew alphabet in the subsequent centuries, and by the early Common Era the Jews had completely abandoned PaleoHebrew. Although they both derived from the same Phoenician ancestor, the shapes of letters in the square script were generally quite different from those of their PaleoHebrew counterparts. For example, our old friend resh took on this appeareance:
: The square script remained primarily consonantal, and as the text of the Hebrew Bible became canonized the writing system could not be adapted directly to introduce systematic vowel letters into the biblical texts. However, in the second half of the first millennium CE various systems consisting of dashes and dots evolved to record vowels
2. Consonants
3
precisely without interfering with the consonantal alphabet already in place. One of these, known as the Tiberian system, became dominant and has remained the chief vehicle for vocalizing biblical texts down to the present day. Since the evolution of the vocalization system it has been possible to read the Hebrew Bible with relative certainty regarding the pronunciation of vowels (the pronunciation of certain vowels, as well as the original consonants, is still disputed in scholarly circles, but this need not worry you at this point!).
2. Consonants Here’s the full consonantal Hebrew alphabet in the square script. There’s some debate concerning the original pronunciation of some of these consonants, and there are varying systems currently in place for pronouncing them. In this course we’ll use the modern Israeli pronunciation, as this is commonly used in many university and other settings around the world and will make it easier for you if you are studying Modern Hebrew as well. Letter
C E 56 7 G 56 7 ! # $ % & '
Name
Pronunciation
alef
silent (see point A below)
bet
b (see point C)
vet
v (see point C)
gimel
g (see point C)
dalet
d (see point C)
he
h as in ‘house’ at end of word: silent (see point A)
waw
v (may originally have sounded like w) silent (see point A)
zayin
z
Fet
ch as in ‘Bach’*,†
Het
t
yod
y silent (see point A)
4
Letter
V ) ( + / 1 0 2 3 a 6 5 8 7 9 : g f k 56 =7
Unit One
Name
Pronunciation
kaf
k (see point C)
khaf
ch as in ‘Bach’ (see points C and D)
final khaf
ch as in ‘Bach’ (appears at end of word only; see points B and D)
lamed
l
mem
m
final mem
m (appears at end of word only; see point B)
nun
n
final nun
n (appears at end of word only; see point B)
samekh
s
ayin
silent (see point A)
pe
p
fe
f
final fe
f (appears at end of word only; see point B)
Gadi
ts as in cats
final Gadi
ts as in cats (appears at end of word only; see point B)
qof
k (see point D)
resh
r (guttural, as in German or Modern Hebrew)
sin
s (see point D)
shin
sh
taw
t (see points C and D)
%
!
!
* If it’s hard to tell from , try this memory aid: they both have the shape of a house, but has a hole in the side. † The consonants Fet, Het, and Gadi are commonly transliterated into the Roman alphabet by means of a letter with a dot underneath.
2. Consonants
5
Some consonants require more explanation: A. Silent letters
3
The letters and were originally pronounced as consonants but are silent in was originally a glottal stop. (If you pronounce the the Israeli pronunciation. was English ‘uh-oh’, the sound you hear between the two words is a glottal stop.) a pharyngeal sound, similar to a glottal stop but pronounced in a slightly different place in the throat. Although they’re now silent, they’re still considered consonants just like all the others. In addition, , , and are silent in certain circumstances. We’ll examine this point in Unit 2.
!#
3
'
B. Final forms The following five letters have a special form (called final) when appearing at the end of a word: Final form
Standard form
T 0 5 7
) / 1 6 8
Points to note: There’s no difference in pronunciation between these final letters and their non-final equivalents; it’s simply a historical quirk of the alphabet. The symbol , which is called shewa (and will be discussed in depth in . This is Unit 2, Grammar point 4), is typically added to final , i.e. purely a convention of the writing system and has no effect on pronunciation. It may be helpful to note that , , , and look a bit as if the lower half of the standard form has been flattened out so that it extends downwards, looks as though the standard form has been squashed into a box while shape.
ß
(
T05
-
7
T-
6
Unit One
C. Begadkefat letters The following six consonants have two variants, one with a dot (called a dagesh) in the middle and one without: With dagesh
Without dagesh
C E G V a k
) 6 =
These six pairs of consonants are called begadkefat letters (the name is an acronym composed of the six consonants with dagesh). Originally the dagesh was used to indicate a difference in pronunciation between the two otherwise identical letters. However, in modern Israeli pronunciation the distinction is preserved in only three of the pairs: vs , vs , and vs , while the other pairs are pronounced identically. This is all you need to know for now, but we’ll examine the dagesh again more thoroughly in Unit 2.
C V )
a 6
D. Consonants with identical pronunciations The following pairs of consonants have identical pronunciations: Consonants
, # %, ), T &, k, = V, 9 2, g
Pronunciation v ch as in ‘Bach’ t k s
This phenomenon can be attributed to changing pronunciation in the history of Hebrew: originally, each of these pairs of consonants represented different sounds, but in modern Israeli pronunciation these differences have been lost. Unfortunately, this means
3. Vowels
7
that there’s a certain degree of rote memorization required when learning words containing one of these consonants.
3. Vowels A. Matres lectionis As discussed above, the Hebrew alphabet originally indicated only consonants but then started using the letters , , and in certain cases as approximate vowel markers. This still wasn’t very clear, but narrowed it down a bit. Let’s look at an example, a word meaning ‘instruction’ or ‘law’ that at an early stage of Hebrew would theoretically have been spelled as follows (though at that point of course the Paleo-Hebrew alphabet would most likely have been used):
!#
'
:= This spelling could have represented a large variety of sounds including tar, tir, tor, tur, tore, tora, tura, etc., which would be frustrating for a reader. (You may be experiencing a bit of that frustration now, as unless you already recognize this word you can have no way of knowing how to read it – but don’t worry; by the end of this unit the correct pronunciation will be revealed!) to However, by adding to represent a vowel in the middle of the word and represent the final vowel, you get this:
#
!
!:#= This would have made it easier to read the word because now it was clear that the vowel in the middle was o or u (the sounds closest to the sound w, which may have been the original consonantal value of ) while the one at the end was e or a, which are the vowels that seem to be closest to h, the consonantal value of . There was still some ambiguity, but at least now the choice was only between tora, tore, tura, and ture. Each of these consonantal vowel markers is called a mater lectionis (‘mater’ for short; plural matres lectionis). The term is Latin for ‘mother of reading’ (because they help you to read!). The development of the matres lectionis was the first step towards a vowel notation system. However, it wasn’t a perfect system as a) it wasn’t precise enough to indicate all vowels systematically, and b) it was used inconsistently within the biblical text, i.e. in one instance a word may appear with a mater lectionis while in another instance it may not. When a mater lectionis appears in a word, the word is said to be spelled plene (Latin for ‘fully’), whereas when it is absent the same word is said to be spelled defectively. Therefore, modifications to this arrangement were
#
!
8
Unit One
required in order to ensure that the biblical text could be read accurately and consistently. These modifications arose in the form of the pointing system. B. Pointing
394 See Reference grammar A1 for summary
The Tiberian vocalization system is a complete method for recording Hebrew vowel sounds. However, it has some complexities of its own, so don’t worry if aspects seem confusing at first – you’ll soon get used to them. According to this system, Hebrew has five basic vowels: a, e, i, o, and u (like Spanish or Italian). However, these basic vowels fit into four separate categories, which are labelled in terms of length: short vowels, reduced vowels, tone-long vowels, and vowels with matres lectionis. Each vowel has its own name. It might seem confusing and inconvenient to have to learn the names for all of these vowels, but they’re actually very important because they will play a big role in many aspects of Hebrew grammar and will therefore be referred to again and again throughout this course. So make the effort to get to know them now and it will quickly start to pay off! Let’s start with the short vowels, which are as follows (the circle represents a consonant, as each vowel symbol is inserted either above or below the consonant that it follows when the word is pronounced). Note that each vowel is pronounced after the consonant that it points (appears below or above), never before. You’ll see that the first row, labelled ‘vowel class’, lists only three vowels (a, i, and u), and that all five vowels are grouped under these three headings. This is because at a very early stage in the development of the Semitic languages there seem to have been only three vowels: a, i, and u, and the other two vowels seem to have been offshoots of these original three. This is not immediately important for us, but will become relevant later when we are looking at various aspects of Biblical Hebrew grammar, so you can ignore the point for now but come back to it at a later date. Short vowels Vowel class
A
Sound (approximate)
a
e
i
o
u
ß
ß
ß
ß
ß
pataF
segol
Fireq
qameG FaHuf
qibbuG
Symbol Name
I
U
Next, here are the reduced vowels. These are easy to remember once you’ve learned the short vowels – they’re identical to the short vowels, except that shewa (the symbol ) has been added to the right-hand side. Shewa is actually itself considered a reduced vowel and can be used independently to point a consonant, indicating a very short e
ß
3. Vowels
9
sound like the e in the English word ‘begin’. In fact, the reduced vowels are also often referred to as ‘composite shewas’. (We’ll look at the shewa in more detail in Unit 2, Grammar point 4.) These reduced vowels are pronounced exactly like their short equivalents. Don’t worry now about when and why they’re used instead of the short vowels; for now just memorize them, and we’ll soon come back to them. Note that there’s no reduced equivalent of Fireq or qibbuG. Reduced vowels Vowel class
A
Sound (approximate)
a
e
i
o
u
ß
ß
—
ß
—
FaHef pataF
FaHef segol
—
FaHef qameG
—
Symbol Name
I
U
Now let’s look at the tone-long vowels. Again, you may be wondering what the difference is between these vowels and their short or reduced equivalents. In the Tiberian system, there would have been a difference in length or pronunciation between the tone-long and short vowels. However, in modern Israeli pronunciation both sets are pronounced identically, i.e. qameG is pronounced the same as its short counterpart pataF. This can be frustrating for the learner because it makes the difference between long and short vowels seem annoyingly arbitrary, but don’t worry – soon you’ll learn some patterns that will help you remember which type of vowel is used where. Tone-long vowels Vowel class
A
Sound (approximate)
a
e
i
o
u
ß
ß
—
ߥ
—
qameG
Gere
—
Folem
—
Symbol Name
I
U
In addition, note two important points about the tone-long vowels:
There’s no such thing as a tone-long i or u sound. The same symbol, , is used to represent two completely different sounds: you were first introduced to it as short o, but now you’ve seen that it can also be used to represent tone-long a. Don’t worry about this for now – in Unit 2 you’ll be given an easy guideline for recognizing which sound it represents in any given word. Until then, just assume that every time you see this symbol it represents the tone-long vowel qameG.
ß
10
Unit One
Finally, let’s look at the group consisting of vowel symbol plus mater lectionis. These are vowels that had a mater lectionis in the consonantal script from an early point in the history of written Hebrew. When the Masoretes added vocalization to these words, the vocalization was actually more precise than the mater lectionis, and thereby can be thought of as having made the mater lectionis redundant. Let’s look back at our . The Masoretes added a Folem and qameG (as well as a earlier example of dagesh) to the initial begadkefat consonant , resulting in the precisely vocalized form . Because the vocalization is so specific, one could in theory now leave out the , which would be just as clear. two matres lectionis, and simply spell the word However, since the Hebrew Bible was by that period already a canonized sacred text, the consonants could not be changed, so the Masoretes left the matres lectionis intact. This resulted in a series of vowels consisting of a combination of a tone-long (or, more rarely, short) vowel and one of the three matres lectionis , , or .
!:#=
=
!:Lk
: k
!#
'
Vowels with matres lectionis Vowel class
A
Sound (approximate)
a
e/ey
i
o
u
!ß
'ß !ß 'ß !ß
'ß
L !ߥ
K
qameG-he
Gere-yod Gere-he segol-yod segol-he
Fireq-yod
Folem-waw Folem-he
shureq
Symbol
Name
I
U
Points to note: None of these vowels may appear at the beginning of a word. Combinations with and may appear in the middle or at the end of a word. Combinations with may appear only at the end of a word. Combinations with and are often referred to as historically long or unchangeably long, for reasons that will become clear in the next few units. In Israeli pronunciation these vowels are usually pronounced the same as their tone-long, short, and reduced counterparts. However, the vowels and usually have the sound ey (as in the English
# ' ! # ' 'ß
'ß
‘hey!’), which is actually a diphthong (a combination of two different vowels) rather than a simple vowel.
4. Handwriting
11
!# '
You may now be wondering how you can tell whether a given , , or is functioning as a consonant or mater lectionis on any given occasion. In almost all cases, there’s a very simple way to work this out. i.
!
ii.
!:Lk
!
'
iii.
If it’s at the end of a word and is not pointed, then it’s functioning as a ‘instruction’; ‘law’. mater lectionis, e.g. Otherwise, it’s a consonant. ( appears as a consonant at the end of a word only very rarely; this will be explained in Unit 14.)
-'
If it’s pointed, e.g. ‘sea’, or followed by a vowel with mater lectionis, e.g. ‘day’, then it’s functioning as a consonant. If it’s not pointed or followed by a vowel with mater lectionis, e.g. ‘who’, then it’s functioning as a mater lectionis.
-L'
'/
#
-' #
If it’s pointed with an A-class vowel, I-class vowel, or shewa, e.g. ‘and ‘his father’, a sea’, or appears unpointed at the end of a word, e.g. then it’s functioning as a consonant. If it’s pointed as and has no other vocalization, then it’s the vowel/mater lectionis combination shureq. If it’s pointed with Folem, there’s some potential for confusion because the same symbol could theoretically be a consonantal pointed with Folem. However, in practice this is almost never a problem because the vowel/mater lectionis combination is always directly preceded by an unpointed con, which indicates that the Folem-waw is serving as sonant, as in that consonant’s only vowel. If the were functioning as a consonant pointed with Folem, the preceding consonant would have to have its own vowel, e.g. ‘sin’.
#'
K
#
!:Lk
#
0L4
4. Handwriting Learning to write Biblical Hebrew is very straightforward. Here are the slightly simplified forms of the block consonants conventionally used in handwriting; use the chart to learn the correct way of forming the letters and then practise copying them out
12
Unit One
until they become familiar. (The pointing is even easier as you can just copy the dots and dashes without the need for special practice!)
Exercises 1.
Read the following common Biblical Hebrew words out loud, pronouncing them and naming the letters. Translations are given for each word. This and subsequent exercises are printed from right to left to help you get into the habit of reading Hebrew in the correct direction.
Check your answers to this and all subsequent exercises in the key on the companion website. Check the companion website for flashcard quizzes on this and all subsequent units.
Exercises
2K2 ‘town’; ‘city’ :'4 ‘palace’; ‘temple’ +)'! ‘who’ '/ ‘field’ ! g ‘mountain’ :! ‘near’; ‘next to’ +8 ‘gold’ ! $ ‘man’ f' ‘big’ +L E ‘horse’
2.
Copy the words from exercise 1 in handwriting.
13
.1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 .10
Unit Two
Contents
Syllables Tone Vowel preferences Shewa (silent and vocal) Dagesh (weak and strong) QameG vs. qameG FaHuf Guttural consonants Quiescent
In this unit we’ll look at a few other essential features of the Hebrew writing system, while at the same time learning some key vocabulary and characters in preparation for starting to read Hebrew texts in Unit 3.
1. Syllables A. Types of syllable Hebrew words, like their English counterparts, can be broken into smaller units of pronunciation called syllables. For example, the English word ‘horse’ has one syllable, while the word ‘city’ can be divided into two, ci- and -ty. The way that words are divided into syllables differs from language to language, and within languages there may be different types of syllables with different combinations of consonants and vowels. In Hebrew, there are very clear rules determining how words are divided into syllables. It’s vitally important that you start to understand and learn how to apply these rules now, because much of the grammar that we’ll be looking at throughout this course is affected by them. Here they are:
All syllables (with only one exception!) begin with a consonant (as opposed to pointing or a mater lectionis). All syllables must have one vowel or diphthong. A syllable may end with a consonant or a vowel (i.e. pointing or a mater lectionis).
1. Syllables
15
When you take all of these rules into account, it means that there are only two kinds of Hebrew syllables: i. ii.
Open syllables: syllables consisting of a consonant + vowel/diphthong Closed syllables: Syllables consisting of a consonant + vowel/diphthong + consonant.
Let’s look at each of these in turn. i.
Open syllables (consonant + vowel/diphthong) It’s easy to remember why this type of syllable is called ‘open’ if you think of it like this: there’s nothing blocking in or protecting the vowel at the end of the syllable; it can run away or keep stretching out as long as it likes because there’s no ‘what’ is an example of an open syllable: consonant closing it in! The word . (Even it consists of the consonant , followed by the historically long vowel is sometimes a consonant, it’s functioning here as a mater lectionis and though therefore counts as a vowel.) Closed syllables (consonant + vowel/diphthong + consonant) Again, the name gives you a fitting description for this type of syllable. For example, look at the following word, which means ‘horse’:
/
!
ii.
!/
!ß
2K2
2 2
This word is a closed syllable that starts with the consonant followed by the historically long vowel , and then ‘closes’ with the consonant . Think of the final consonant as a lid or wall that closes off the syllable, ensuring that the vowel in the middle can’t escape!
K
B. Words with more than one syllable These words we’ve just looked at are easy because they’re monosyllabic (they have only one syllable), so all you have to do is decide whether it’s open or closed. However, many words in Hebrew have more than one syllable, so you have to know how to
16
Unit Two
divide them into different syllables. Keeping in mind the rules we’ve just looked at, this will be easy. For example, look at the following word, which means ‘king’:
T+ /
This word is composed of two syllables. The first one,
/ , is an open syllable consist-
/ and the short vowel ß . The second is a closed syllable consisting of the consonant +, the short vowel ß , and the final ‘closing’ consonant T. So we ing of the consonant
can divide the word into syllables like this:
T+ Ơ / By contrast, a word might have two open syllables, e.g. as follows:
!:Lk , which can be divided
!: Ơ Lk 2. Tone A. Tonic syllables Along with syllable types, another important feature of Biblical Hebrew is tone (also called stress or accent, i.e. the syllable that is emphasized when you pronounce the word). In English the syllable with the tone can vary from word to word, e.g. palace, pronounce, imagination. In Hebrew, by contrast, the tone is typically on the final ‘gold’. The syllable with the tone is known, logically, as tonic. syllable, as in However, in some cases the tone may be on the penultimate (second-to-last) syllable,
! $
3. Vowel preferences
17
T+ / ‘king’. In this course it is assumed that the final syllable is tonic; when this is not the case, the tonic syllable will be marked with the symbol ß . For example, the word T+ / will be written as T+ / . If you don’t see ß , it means that the tone is e.g.
on the final syllable, as expected.
N
ß
ote that is a learning aid only; it’s not actually used to indicate non-final tone in authentic biblical texts.
B. Pretonic and propretonic syllables Hebrew syllables have different labels depending on where they are in relation to the tone. The syllable immediately before the tonic syllable is called, sensibly, pretonic, while the one before that is called propretonic. Any syllables even farther away from the tone are also propretonic (though some grammarians label them distant). Conversely, syllables following the tone are called posttonic, but these are comparatively uncommon. Hebrew words rarely have more than three or four syllables, so you won’t usually have to deal with more than one or two propretonic syllables in the same word.
- + fK: '
, meaning ‘Jerusalem’, which This labelling system is illustrated in the word has five syllables (the most you’ll ever have to deal with by far!). Note that the final syllable is spelled defectively, without (resulting in an unusual situation whereby Fireq appears on the right side of the final mem and is pronounced before it, i.e. -im).
'
1
2
3
4
5
[
+
f
K:
'
posttonic
tonic
pretonic
propretonic
propretonic (or distant)
3. Vowel preferences
395 See Reference grammar A2 for summary
You may be wondering why it’s so important to know how to divide and label syllables right now! One of the reasons this is necessary is because different vowels are found in different types of syllables, and this will have significant implications for the pointing system as well as many grammatical issues. Here’s a basic reference list of which types of syllables the different vowels may be found in. Don’t feel that you have to absorb it all at once, but keep it in mind as you’ll be coming back to these points time and again throughout the course.
18
Unit Two
A.
B.
C.
Tone-long vowels prefer: i.
Open or closed tonic syllables, e.g.
ii.
Open pretonic syllables, e.g.
! $, !:Lk
! $
Short vowels prefer: i.
Unstressed closed syllables, e.g.
ii.
Open tonic syllables, e.g.
T+ /
T+ /
Reduced vowels and vocal shewa prefer: Open propretonic syllables, e.g.
- + fK: '
D. Historically long vowels can be found in any type of syllable.
4. Shewa
395 See Reference grammar A3 for summary
Now we’ll look at another important feature of the Hebrew writing system, the , called shewa. The shewa is used to perform two different functions, symbol and actually has two different names depending on the function. We’ll look at each type of shewa in turn.
ß
A. Silent shewa The first type of shewa is called the silent shewa. The name describes its function, as it’s used to signal the absence of a vowel. As such, it appears at the end of a closed syllable, pointing a consonant directly preceded by a short vowel. It’s typically found in the middle of a word, but in certain cases it appears at the end; one of these is in the final consonant , as you’ve seen, and you’ll meet the others later in the course. Look at the following word, which means ‘queen’: This word clearly illustrates this function of the silent
T
+
shewa: it points the , which is immediately preceded by the short vowel pataF. The shewa is telling us that this is indeed the end of the syllable and there’s no vowel here.
!V + /
4. Shewa
19
B. Vocal shewa The second type of shewa is called vocal. Again, the name reveals something of its function: in contrast to its silent counterpart, this one is actually a vowel sound. Historically it’s a very short e sound as in the e in the English word ‘begin’. However, just to complicate matters, in modern Israeli pronunciation the vocal shewa is not usually pronounced, making it identical to the silent shewa as far as sound is concerned. This means that you have to learn a few rules so that you’ll be able to identify vocal shewas with confidence. The vocal shewa behaves in the opposite way from the silent shewa in that it appears only in open syllables. It can appear in four different places within a word: i.
Beginning of word
- + fK: '. As you saw above, this word can be divided into five syllables, [ + f K: '; the vocal shewa is pointing the first Consider the word
ii.
syllable, which is open. After long vowel Look at the following word, which means ‘judges’ and appears frequently in the Hebrew Bible:
-'& 6 f This word can be divided into three syllables:
-'& Ơ 6 Ơ f You may be wondering how it’s possible to tell that the first syllable is open and
f
6 f
ends after the rather than being closed and ending after , with the shewa marking the end of the closed syllable. If you look back to the list of vowel
f
preferences, you’ll find the answer: the Folem pointing the initial consonant is a long vowel (in this case it’s actually historically long, but spelled defectively so it looks as if it’s tone-long), and as you can see from the list, long vowels usually avoid closed syllables that aren’t tonic. Therefore, by process of elimination, the shewa must be vocal, and as such is part of its own open syllable. iii. After silent shewa As a rule, whenever you see two shewas in a row, the first one is silent and the second one is vocal. (In fact, the Masoretic pointing conventions don’t allow for the existence of two vocal shewas next to each other – more on this
- + fK: ' =L%a f / ‘the families of Jerusalem’: the first shewa in =L%a f / is silent, closing the
later!) You can see an example of this in the phrase
20
Unit Two
first syllable, while the second one is vocal, representing the vowel in the open syllable . Pointing strong dagesh (see below)
a
iv.
5. Dagesh
395 See Reference grammar A4 for summary
The dagesh, like the shewa, has two variants, each of which has its own function and name. (The Masoretes developed an excellent vocalization system, but their penchant for using the same symbol to serve two different functions can be very frustrating for students!) The two variants are called the weak dagesh and strong dagesh, and they’re used in quite different circumstances: the weak dagesh appears only in the six pairs of begadkefat letters, while the strong dagesh can be found in almost any letter. Let’s look at each type of dagesh in more detail. A. Weak dagesh The weak dagesh (also called by its Latin name, dagesh lene) appears as a rule in each when the letter isn’t following a of the six begadkefat letters , , , , , and vowel, i.e. in one of the following two positions:
CEGVa
k
52 V Directly following a silent shewa, e.g. !V + /
i.
At the beginning of a word, e.g.
ii.
Conversely, a begadkefat letter directly following a vowel doesn’t take the weak dagesh,
+)' ! .
e.g.
T
his principle often applies to begadkefat letters at the beginning of a word when that word follows another word ending in a vowel, e.g.
+L E ! g
+L ! g ‘a big field’
instead of . This convention isn’t invariable, so just be aware that you’ll encounter it when reading biblical texts but that it’s not universal. (It’s actually governed by rules, but you don’t need to learn them at this stage.)
B. Strong dagesh The strong dagesh (also known by the Latin term dagesh forte), in contrast to its weak counterpart, can appear in any consonant except , , , , and .1 Its function
!%3
1
:
Strong dagesh does actually appear in some of these letters on very rare occasions in the Hebrew Bible, but these are anomalies that need not concern you now.
6. Qames vs. qames hatuf ˙ ˙ ˙ ˙
21
is very different from that of the weak dagesh: it indicates that the consonant in which it appears is doubled (pronounced for twice as long as a single consonant). Doubled consonants occur sometimes in English: for example, say ‘unnatural’ out loud and then ‘a natural’: you’ll see that the n sound in ‘unnatural’ is actually held for longer. However, in modern Israeli pronunciation doubling has been lost, and therefore, as in the case of the long and short vowels, and vocal and silent shewa, the difference between a consonant with a strong dagesh and one without it is impossible to hear. This means that you just have to memorize whether a given consonant in a given word takes a strong dagesh. On the bright side, though, in most cases deciding whether a given dagesh is strong or weak is very simple: if you see a dagesh in a letter that’s not begadkefat, it must be , which means ‘the horse’ (it’s just the familiar word strong. Take the example with a prefix added to it; we’ll look at this in Unit 3). As soon as you see the is not a begadkefat letter. dagesh in the , you know it has to be strong because Originally, then, the word would have been pronounced as if it had two samekhs in a . row, i.e. This illustrates another important point: since a consonant with strong dagesh is doubled, that means that it’s actually part of two syllables: the consonant is only written once, but adding the strong dagesh is a shorthand way of indicating the presence of two identical consonants there. The first of these doubled consonants closes the previous Ơ . This syllable, while the second one forms a separate, open syllable, like this: is why, referring back to point iv of the previous section, a shewa pointing a consonant with strong dagesh must be vocal: it serves as the vowel of this open syllable. Note therefore that the strong dagesh doesn’t usually appear at the beginning or end of a word. (There are a few exceptions to this rule, but they will be pointed out later.) The only situation where it may not be so immediately obvious which type of dagesh you’re dealing with is in a begadkefat letter. Begadkefat letters can be doubled just like other consonants, which means that theoretically the dagesh in a given begadkefat letter could be strong instead of weak. However, there’s a very simple guideline for distinguishing the two:
2K2
2K_!
2 2K22 !
2
2K2 2 !
52 V !
‘the A dagesh in a begadkefat letter is strong if it follows a vowel, e.g. silver’; ‘the money’. Note that this is the exact opposite of the situations in which a weak dagesh is found.
6. QameU vs. qameU TaVuf Now that you know about syllable structure it’s time to learn an easy way to distinguish the identical-looking symbols qameG and qameG FaHuf. There are only two contexts in which you’ll find qameG FaHuf:
22
Unit Two
A. Closed unstressed syllables
ß
The symbol is invariably qameG FaHuf when it appears in a closed, unstressed sylin the first syllable of the word ‘wisdom’, lable. An example of this is the Ơ . which divides into two syllables as follows:
ß
!/ ) %
!/ ) %
B. Immediately preceding tavef qameu An example of this is the ship’.
ß pointing the first syllable of the word ! Q 1 C ‘in a
I
n all other cases the symbol is the tone-long vowel qameG.
7. Guttural consonants The following four Hebrew consonants form a special class called gutturals:
!
%
3
:
In addition, is considered a ‘half’-guttural in that it has some of the special properties of the other gutturals, but not all. The gutturals have the following characteristics that distinguish them from other consonants:
They can’t be doubled, i.e. they never appear with strong dagesh (this applies to as well as the other gutturals).2 They can’t be pointed with vocal shewa. Instead, they may be pointed with one of the reduced vowels. (You can think of the reduced vowels as variants of vocal shewa designed specially for the unreasonable, demanding gutturals, which won’t accept the normal vocal shewa like the other, more agreeable, consonants. In this case doesn’t behave like a guttural, as it’s happy to be pointed with vocal shewa, ‘city square’). e.g. They often prefer to be pointed with A-class vowels (don’t worry about this point too much for now, but it will become relevant later).
:
: L%:
2
As mentioned above, there are a very few exceptions to this rule, but don’t worry about them now!
Exercises
8. Quiescent
23
Although the consonant is not usually considered a mater lectionis, often when appearing at the end of a syllable it quiesces (becomes silent), meaning that it has no pointing and is not considered a consonant for syllabification purposes. You can see
K+) Q #
‘and they ate’. If a word ending in quiescent (silent) is this in the word directly followed by another word beginning with a begadkefat letter, the weak dagesh is not considered a is often left out of the begadkefat letter because the quiescent consonant. You can see this in the following phrase, meaning ‘a large throne’:
+L _ V
Exercises 1.
Go back to Unit 1, Exercise 1 and divide each of the words into syllables, noting how many syllables there are and whether each syllable is open or closed.
2.
Read the following words and decide whether the shewa in each word is vocal or silent.
! $ # f / ‘banquet’ !k ‘table’ 0% + f ‘very’ / ‘kings’ -') + / : ‘wicked men’ -'4 f / ‘family’ !% a f ‘and gold’
.1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7
24
3.
Unit Two
Read the following words and decide whether each dagesh (there may be more than one in a word) is weak or strong.
!i ‘son’ 0C f / ‘banquet’ !k / ‘family’ !% a f E ‘camels’ -'X / ! ‘the table’ 0% + i ! ‘the king’ T+ ] ‘inside of’ TL=C ‘the day’ -LQ! ‘where’ ! Q
‘woman’; ‘wife’
.1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 .10
Unit Three
Contents
2K_! # T+ ] ! ‘The king and the horse’ The definite article Nominal (equational/verbless) sentences Noun–adjective phrases Maqqef Word order in verbal sentences Translating Creation, part 1 (Genesis 1:1–13)
! ^!
Below is the first of the stories that will introduce each unit. You can see by looking quickly at the story that Biblical Hebrew doesn’t have punctuation such as commas, full stops, question marks, etc. Instead, you can see the symbol appearing periodically throughout the text. This symbol is called sof pasuq (meaning ‘end of verse’). In the Hebrew Bible it’s used to mark the end of a verse and can be thought of as roughly equivalent to a full stop, though in some cases it may be more similar to a comma, semicolon, question mark, or exclamation mark. This means that you’ll have to work out its exact sense depending on the context in which it appears. The sof pasuq is the only biblical punctuation symbol you need to know for now; later in the course you’ll be introduced to the others.
ª
2K_! # T+ ] ! :'4 -f # 04 1 V 7: C +L E :! '! ' # +)' ! ! '! ' # :'4 ! +8 +)' ! '! ' # +)' ! ! TL=C f' '! ' # ª / +L E ¡+4 f ' T+ ] ! # T+ / f' ! '! ' # '! ' # +)' ! ! +8 ! g '! ' # ª / +L _ V ! '! ' # ª_ V ! ^! 2K_! :/ Q # ª! j ! TL=C 2K2 '! ' # ª / 0&9 ! j ! TL=C f ' ' 1 # +L E +)' ! TL=C +L _ V¡+ 4 f ' T+ ] ! ª9 c ! ! Q 0&9 ! g
26
Unit Three
Vocabulary the (prefixed to the following word)* the king* and; but; whereas (prefixed to the following word; see Unit 4, Grammar point 2) the horse* 1. 2.
and there was a . . . (before indefinite noun, i.e. noun prefix) without prefix or name and (the) ___ was . . . (before noun with of a person/place) (surprisingly, the shewa in this word is vocal; this oddity will be explained in Units 30 and 35)
!
big in (prefixed to the following word; see Unit 4, Grammar point 3)
Canaan in the land of Canaan there city; a city palace; a palace (also: temple) near; next to the city* the palace* very man; a man in the middle of; inside (of) (also: among)
2K_! '! ' #
!
mountain; a mountain
land (also: earth; ground)
! T+ ] ! #
:! +L E C 7: 04 1 V 04 1 V 7: C -f :'4 +)' ! +8 :'4 ! +)' ! ! / f' TL=C
1. Forming the definite article
middle of; inside of the man* sitting on (also: upon; over; about; against; because of) (joined to following word by maqqef )† throne; a throne the throne* field; a field the field* small horse; a horse and he said look; you see (traditionally translated as ‘behold’)‡ and/but I (see Unit 4, Grammar point 1) where the justice
27
TLk f' ! f ' ¡+4 _ V _ V ! ! g ! j ! 0&9 2K2 :/ Q # ! ^! ' 1 # ! Q 9 c !
* See Grammar point 1. † See Grammar point 5. ‡ See Grammar point 7.
Grammar points 1. Forming the definite article
396 See Reference grammar A5 for summary
Hebrew doesn’t have an indefinite article (a word equivalent to the English ‘a’ or ‘an’). may mean ‘horse’ or ‘a horse’, depending on the context. Therefore, the word However, it does have a definite article (the equivalent of the English ‘the’). The Hebrew definite article is not a word but rather a prefix that gets attached to the
2K2
28
Unit Three
word to which it relates. You’ve seen many examples of this in the story, e.g.
2K_! , T+ ] ! , _ V ! , ! j ! , f' ! , +)' ! ! , :'4 ! . From this you can see the definite article consists of ! pointed with pataF or qameG and that this is prefixed directly to the following word. However, you can also see that the precise form varies depending on the word, and furthermore that there are some words in whose first consonant a strong dagesh has appeared following the definite article. These differences are all very predictable and can be summarized in a few rules: A. Default rule
!
prefix is pointed with pataF and a strong dagesh is inserted in In most cases, the the word’s first consonant. Many scholars believe that the original form of the definite assimilated (was absorbed) into the first article was *han-,1 and that the original consonant of the following word, causing it to double. (In Biblical Hebrew it’s actually very common for to assimilate into the following consonant in this way, as you’ll see throughout the course, so this hypothesis is quite logical.)
1
1
_ V !
←
the throne
! j ! the field
←
_ V
2K_!
throne
the horse
! g
T+ ] !
field
the king
2K2
←
horse
T+ /
←
king
Point to note: If a word begins with a begadkefat letter, the initial weak dagesh changes to a strong dagesh when the definite article is added, since it’s now preceded by a vowel. However, this difference is completely theoretical: there’s no actual pointing change, as the weak and strong dagesh look and sound identical! The main exceptions to the default rule consist of words beginning with a guttural consonant. This is because gutturals can’t double, so the default pattern won’t work. Instead, we get one of two alternative patterns, which also introduce us to two important principles of Hebrew pointing that will occur over and over again throughout the course. B. Words beginning with
, 3, or : 3 :
When the definite article is prefixed to words beginning with , , or , the expected strong dagesh is omitted (because, as you saw in Unit 2, gutturals can’t double). This
1
The * symbol indicates a reconstructed form in a (hypothetical) earlier language.
1. Forming the definite article
29
means that we can’t point the definite article with the expected pataF, because that would result in a short vowel in an open, unstressed syllable, which violates the rules of vowel preferences (check the vowel preferences list in Unit 2, Grammar point 3 for a reminder of these). Instead, we compensate for the lack of a strong dagesh by lengthening the vowel to qameG, which in contrast to pataF is perfectly happy to appear in an open unstressed syllable. This phenomenon is called, quite sensibly, compensatory lengthening.
f:!
←
f:
:'4 !
head
the city
the head
←
:'4
f' !
city
the man
←
f' man
! or % Words beginning with ! or % can’t take a strong dagesh in their first consonant either. However, instead of compensating for this by lengthening the pataF of the definite article to qameG, these words are prefixed by ! just like their non-guttural counterparts
C. Words beginning with
even though there’s no doubling. This phenomenon is known by the delightful label virtual doubling. This label is a good description of the phenomenon: it’s as if we’re pretending that the first consonant is doubled, because otherwise we would be faced with the disturbing reality of a short vowel, pataF, in an unstressed open syllable. Since this should not be allowed, we just choose to live in a virtual reality world of denial: we imagine that the guttural is doubled, even though it’s not, and carry on as if nothing odd had happened!
f % ! the month
←
f %
+)' ! !
month
the palace
←
+)' ! palace
I
n order to remember which gutturals follow rule B and which follow rule C, and , follow think of it like this: gutturals that have the shape of a house, i.e. pattern C (in other words, the houses have a virtual strong dagesh in their living room); the other three follow pattern B.
!
D. Words beginning with
%
% , unstressed 4 , or unstressed ! 3
A less common variant consists of words beginning with unstressed pointed with qameG, pointed with qameG, or (whether stressed or not) pointed with qameG. unstressed In such cases the definite article is pointed with segol, as in the following examples.
!
-': 4 ! the cities
←
%
-': 4
-': ! !
cities
the mountains
←
-': !
-) % !
mountains
the wise man
←
-) % wise man
30
Unit Three
E. Words beginning with
/ and ' ' /
When the definite article is prefixed to a word beginning with or pointed with vocal shewa, the strong dagesh is frequently omitted, even though this means that the pataF pointing the definite article is left in an open, unstressed syllable (just as and ). This phenomenon is illustrated in the case of the virtually doubled gutturals in the following examples.
!
-'+ E: / !
←
%
-'+ E: /
-' + '!
spies
the children
the spies
←
-' + ' children
T
here are some exceptions to this rule, and it occasionally applies to nouns beginning with another consonant + vocal shewa. It’s easiest just to learn these cases individually as you encounter them and not worry about trying to find a pattern. (If you’re curious, the phenomenon will be explained a bit more fully in Unit 30, Grammar point 1.)
F. Exceptions A few words change in an irregular way when the definite article is prefixed to them. Just learn these words as you encounter them; some of the most common ones are listed below.
-4 !
←
the nation
0 E! the garden
←
-4
7: !
nation
the land
0 E
:! !
garden
the mountain
←
7: land
←
:! mountain
Points to note: In some of these cases, the pointing of the noun changes in an unexpected way when the definite article is prefixed, but the pointing of the definite ar-
0 E! 7: !
ticle itself is not irregular, e.g. , . In other cases, the pointing of the definite article is also irregular, e.g.
:! ! .
2. Use of the definite article In many cases the Hebrew definite article is used in the same way as its English counterpart, namely to indicate that the word to which it is prefixed refers to a specific
4. Noun–adjective phrases
31
item or concept, most likely one that has been mentioned previously and is thus familiar to the reader or hearer. An example of this is ‘the king’, ‘the horse’, which refers to a specific king and horse that you already know about, rather than just any king or horse. However, the Hebrew definite article can also be used in a few other ways that don’t correspond precisely to English. For example, it can be used to indicate a general can mean ‘gold’ in general rather than ‘the gold’. It can also be category, e.g.
! O!
T+ ] !
used to indicate that a speaker is directly addressing a listener, e.g. can mean ‘O King!’ as well as ‘the king’. The correct meaning of the definite article will usually be clear from the context.
3. Nominal (equational/verbless) sentences Study the following sentences from the story:
:'4 -f #
9 c ! ! Q
And a city is/was there.
Where is the justice?
This type of sentence is called nominal (alternatively equational or verbless). You can see that although the English equivalents of these sentences have a form of the verb (a word designating an action or state) ‘to be’, the Hebrew versions don’t. This type of sentence is quite common in Hebrew; when reading and translating such sentences, you have to remember to insert the ‘is/am/are’ into your translation.
4. Noun–adjective phrases You’ve seen a few examples of phrases consisting of a noun (a word describing a person, place, thing, or idea, e.g. ‘king’, ‘horse’, ‘palace’) and an adjective (a describing word, e.g. ‘big’, ‘small’). In Hebrew noun–adjective phrases the noun comes first and the adjective comes second, e.g.:
0&9 ! g
+L _ V
a small field
a big throne
This differs from English, in which the adjective comes first. If the word
/ ‘very’ is added to the adjective, it goes after the adjective: / +L E +)' ! a very big palace
32
Unit Three
5. Maqqef
¡
The symbol , which is called maqqef, is sometimes used to link two (or, more rarely, three) words together in order to indicate that there’s a close relationship between them. Words with maqqef attached to them are typically (though not always) mono-
_ V¡+ 4
‘on a syllabic. You saw an example of this in the story, in the phrase throne’. It’s not always obvious why a given word is joined by maqqef to another, and the symbol is not used completely consistently, so just learn to recognize it but don’t worry about trying to predict exactly when it will occur.
6. Word order in verbal sentences In a verbal sentence (a sentence containing a verb), the verb often precedes the noun, e.g.:
9 c ! ! Q 2K_! :/ Q #
0&9 ! j ! '! ' #
And the horse said, ‘Where is the justice?’
And the field was small.
7. Translating
! ^!
! ^!
The particle is a common feature of Biblical Hebrew and is used in a variety of different ways, which we’ll examine gradually during this course. The precise meaning and appropriate English translation of the particle has long been a thorny issue. In many traditional English Bible versions, it’s translated as ‘behold’; however, this translation can be problematic as ‘behold’ is not widely used in modern English outside of biblical translations, and therefore this translation can obscure the real function of the particle. While this function (or functions) has long been debated by grammarians, there’s widespread agreement that it serves to draw the listener’s or reader’s attention to whatever follows it, giving it an element of vividness or indicating that it’s somehow noteworthy. It usually appears in dialogue rather than narrative. In its most basic sense, it can appear in an equational sentence with a meaning of ‘here is’, e.g.:
2K_! ! ^! Here is the horse. However, it also very often appears in verbal sentences, in which case the translation is a bit more difficult. Keeping in mind the idea of vividness or noteworthiness, it could be translated as ‘look at this’, ‘don’t you see’, ‘don’t you know’, ‘look!’, or sometimes ‘now’ (in addition to the traditional ‘behold’). You can see some of these possibilities in the English translations of the following example from the story. As you gain famon any given iliarity with Biblical Hebrew, you’ll get a feel for the sense of occasion (though deciding how best to translate it may remain a challenge!).
! ^!
Exercises
33
' 1 # +L E +)' ! TL=C +L _ V¡+ 4 f ' T+ ] ! ! ^! ª0&9 ! g TL=C f ' ‘Look at this! The king is sitting on a big throne inside a big palace, whereas I am sitting inside a small field!’ ‘Look! The king . . .’ ‘Don’t you see? The king . . .’ ‘Behold! The king . . .’
Exercises 1.
Insert the correct form of the definite article into each of the following biblical extracts and translate each extract into English. When required, remember to add a strong dagesh to the first consonant of the noun and/or change its pointing. In this and subsequent such exercises, check any unfamiliar words in the Hebrew– English glossary at the end of the book.
! $______ -f ______ ! ^! (1 Samuel 12:13) T+ / ______¡'/ (Psalms 34:13) f' (Genesis 2:9) 0 ______ TL=C (Exodus 3:12) :!______ +4 ______¡ + :/ Q # (Genesis 3:1) !i (Genesis 19:4) -4______¡ +V (Genesis 35:5) -': 4 ______¡+4 (Daniel 1:15) -' + '______¡+V ! ______ TLk¡+ (Nehemiah 6:10) +)' (Genesis 2:11)
2
3
2.
2 3
.1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 .10
Answer in Biblical Hebrew the following questions about the story at the beginning of the unit. Remember to use full pointing in this and all subsequent exercises requiring you to write in Biblical Hebrew. ‘to’. ‘all’ (note: the vowel is a qameG FaHuf ).
34
Unit Three
/ +L !/ / 0&9 !/ ! j ! TL=C f ' '/ 3.
.5 .6 .7
:! ! ! Q +)' ! ! ! Q +)' ! ! TL=C f ' '/ ! j ! ! Q
.1 .2 .3 .4
Translate the following paragraph into Biblical Hebrew. Use sof pasuq to render all English punctuation. Remember that there’s no Hebrew equivalent for the English ‘am’, ‘is’, and ‘are’. In this and subsequent such exercises, check any unfamiliar words in the English–Hebrew glossary at the end of the book. The king is in the middle of the palace. The palace is big. The king is sitting on a throne. The throne is very big. The queen is next to the palace. The queen is in the middle of the garden. The garden is very big. The horse is in the middle of the field. The field is very small. Where is the justice?
The companion website has many extra exercises for this and subsequent units (particularly extra English–Hebrew translations).
Creation, part 1 (Genesis 1:1–13) Below is a simplified version of the beginning of the first chapter of Genesis, the first book of the Hebrew Bible, in which God creates the world and everything in it. Although it has been adapted, the text has not been rewritten in that all of the words appearing in it are taken directly from the Hebrew Bible. Original verse numbers are included so that you can locate them in an English or bilingual Bible edition; the numbers are not consecutive because some verses have been omitted from the adaptation. The text contains some grammatical constructions that we haven’t studied yet, but don’t be concerned as all unfamiliar forms and vocabulary are listed below.
ª7: ! = # - '/ i ! = -'!Y : C ='f : C 1:1 :L '! ' -'!Y :/ Q # 1:3 ªK! # K!= != '! 7: ! # 1:2 :/ Q # 1:6 ª % -L' :9 ¡'! ' # : 4¡' ! ' # 1:5 ª:L¡'! ' # -L' :9 ¡'! ' # : 4¡' ! ' # 1:8 ª- '] ! TL=C µ' 9 : '! ' -'!Y 8Lk # 1:12 ªf G 7: ! f k -'!Y :/ Q # 1:11 ª' 1f ª'f' + f -L' :9 ¡'! ' # : 4¡' ! ' # 1:13 ªf G 7: !
Vocabulary
35
Vocabulary in the beginning (he) created God no English equivalent; used to signal a definite direct object (see Unit 6) sky; heavens was (the vowel in the first syllable is qameG, not qameG FaHuf – this will be explained in Unit 6, Grammar point 3.) formlessness and void let there be light evening morning one firmament, vault water
second let it grow grass and it brought forth third
='f : C : C -'!Y = - '/ f != '! K! # K!= '! ' :L : 4 *:9 C % µ' 9 : - '/ (usually pointed as - '/ ) ' 1f f k f G 8Lk # 'f' + f
1:1
1:2
1:3
1:5
1:6
1:8 1:11
1:12 1:13
* In the biblical text this appears without weak dagesh because it follows a vowel. In this and subsequent such cases (in the introductory stories and biblical texts) the vocabulary list gives the standard form with weak dagesh.
Unit Four
Contents
!k f ] ! ‘The banquet’ The conjunction waw Prepositions (independent, separable, inseparable) Furtive pataF Creation, part 2 (Genesis 1:14–2:3)
!k f ] ! 0/ f # :g K -% + 0% + i !¡+ 4 '! ' # ª+)' ! C +L !k f / '! ' # 0 'Q ! ! Q T+ ] ! :/ Q # ª0% + i ! +8 f ' T+ ] ! # ': 6K f K 0 '' 2K_!¡+ 4 '! ' # 2K_!¡ 4 +)' ! !¡+ 4 Q # ª- '] ! # :g K -% + +) 2K_! ! ^! # 0% + i !¡+ 2K_! Q # ª- '/K ' 1 9 c ! ! Q T+ ] ! :/ Q # ª / ´ / g 2K_! # ': 6K f K ª2K_! TL=C +) ! # 4 :
1. Pointing the conjunction waw
37
Vocabulary water and (he) came servant; slave to with and water† and suddenly (see Unit 8, Grammar point 4)
- '/ Q # 4 ¡+ ¡-4 - '/K ! ^! #
happy‡ hungry food
in the palace* table bread; food and meat† meat; flesh oil and honey†
+) ´ / g 4 : +)
eating
banquet
honey and fruit† fruit wine
!k f / +)' ! C 0% + f -% + :g K :g C 0/ f f K f G ': 6K ': a 0 ''
* See Grammar point 3. † See Grammar point 1. ‡ See Grammar point 4.
Grammar points 1. Pointing the conjunction waw 396 See Reference grammar A6 for summary
#
In Unit 3 you were introduced to the prefix , meaning ‘and’. This prefix is called the conjunction waw (a conjunction is a word that links two or more other words, phrases, or sentences). This waw appears over 50,000 times in the Hebrew Bible, making it the most commonly occurring biblical word (though it’s technically not a word, just a prefix). As with the definite article, the pointing of the conjunction waw varies depending on the first consonant of the word to which it’s prefixed. The rules are very straightforward (just in case you may already be fearing otherwise!):
38
Unit Four
A. Default rule Typically waw is pointed with vocal shewa and prefixed directly to the following word with no further changes, as follows. Note that, in contrast to the definite article, a guttural at the beginning of the following word doesn’t affect the pointing of the waw, as you can see in the example on the bottom left.
0/ f #
←
and oil
3 # and a slave
←
0/ f
2K2 #
oil
and a horse
3
-% + #
a slave
and bread
←
2K2 a horse
←
-% + bread
Remember that if the word prefixed by waw begins with a begadkefat letter, this loses its weak dagesh because prefixing the waw to it means that it’s now directly following a vowel:
52 ) #
52 V
←
and silver/money
silver/money
C, /, or a The three letters C, /, or a form a special category of consonants called ‘bilabials’ B. Words beginning with
(from the Latin for ‘lip’, because they’re pronounced with the lips). When waw is prefixed to a word beginning with one of the bilabials, it becomes shureq. This is the only exception in all of Biblical Hebrew to the rule that a word never begins with a vowel. (Note again that if the word begins with a begadkefat letter, this loses its weak dagesh when the is prefixed to it, as in the middle and left-hand examples.)
K
A
n easy way to remember this category is by the word BUMP, which contains all three bilabial letters as well as the ‘u’ sound of shureq.
': 6K and fruit
←
': a
:g K
fruit
and meat
←
:g C
- '/K
meat
and water
C. Words beginning with any consonant except
←
- '/ water
' pointed with vocal shewa '
Similarly, if the word to which waw is attached begins with any consonant except pointed with vocal shewa, the waw becomes a shureq. As usual, if the word begins
1. Pointing the conjunction waw
39
with a begadkefat letter, this loses its weak dagesh when the shureq is prefixed to it, as in the example on the left.
f K
←
f G
!/YfK
honey
and Solomon
and honey
D. Words beginning with
←
!/Yf
L%:K
Solomon
and a city square
L%:
←
city square
'
'
If a word begins with pointed with vocal shewa, something slightly different happens when waw is prefixed to it: the quiesces (it loses its pointing, changing from a consonant to a mater lectionis) and the conjunction waw is pointed with Fireq:
-' +' #
←
and children
'
-' + '
- + fK:' #
children
and Jerusalem
! K!' #
- + fK: '
←
Jerusalem
! K! '
←
and Judah
Judah (region in which Jerusalem is located)
E. Words beginning with a letter pointed with a reduced vowel If a word begins with a consonant (usually a guttural) pointed with a reduced vowel, waw is pointed with the equivalent short vowel, as shown below: 1
! Q 1 #
←
and a ship F. The words
1
! Q 1
=/ #
ship
and truth
←
=/
' 1 #
truth
and I
←
' 1 I
-'!Y and ! #! ' -'!Y
The pointing of the conjunction waw is irregular when prefixed to the word beginning the word quiesces, and the waw is pointed with Gere. ‘God’: the The pointing is also irregular when prefixed to the Tetragrammaton (the four-letter , but the name of the Israelite God). The consonants of the Tetragrammaton are original vowels are unknown and according to Jewish tradition the name should never , meaning be pronounced aloud. Rather, it’s replaced in speech by the word ‘my Lord’. It’s usually translated into English as ‘The LORD’ (printed in small capitals)
!#!' ' 1
Remember that
ß
here is the short vowel qameG FaHuf, so the sequence
ß ß
is pronounced o-o.
40
Unit Four
or ‘The ETERNAL’. Because of this tradition, the Tetragrammaton is pointed with except that the FaHef-pataF is replaced by pataF and the Folem the vowels of . (This consonant–vowel combination is usually omitted, resulting in the form is the source of the English name ‘Jehovah’.) When the conjunction waw is prefixed , the vocal shewa is dropped and the waw is pointed with pataF. to
' 1
! #! '
! #! '
! #!' #
! #! '
-'!Y #
The LORD
and God
←
and the LORD G. Common expressions with
←
-'!Y God
#
Sometimes when two nouns are linked by the conjunction waw, the waw is pointed with qameG. This can occur when a) the two nouns are very closely related and frequently appear as a pair, almost like set expressions, and b) the second word is monosyllabic or accented on the penultimate syllable. This phenomenon is really a tendency rather than a hard and fast rule, so just learn these types of pairs as you come across them rather than trying to predict when they will occur. Here are some common examples.
08 # :9 C herds (cattle) and flocks (sheep and goats)
- '/ # -% +
3: # L&
52 ) # ! $
bread and water
good and evil
gold and silver
2
2. Uses of the conjunction waw In many cases the conjunction waw corresponds in meaning to the English ‘and’, as shown below:
': 6K f K 0/ f # :g K -% + bread and meat and oil and honey and fruit However, it also has a wider variety of additional meanings. It often indicates a contrast, equivalent to English ‘but’ or ‘whereas’, e.g.:
ª2K_! TL=C +) ! # 4 : ' 1 9 c ! ! Q T+ ] ! :/ Q # And the king said, ‘Where is the justice? I am hungry, but the food is inside the horse!’
2
This phenomenon applies to BUMP letters, as illustrated here.
3. Prepositions
41
f ' ' 1 # +L E +)' ! TL=C f ' T+ ] ! 2K_! :/ Q # ª0&9 ! g TL=C And the horse said, ‘The king is sitting inside a big palace, whereas I am sitting inside a small field.’ Moreover, it’s often used at the beginning of a new storyline or change of narrative topic to introduce background information. This is called initializing waw and has the sense of ‘now’ or ‘by the way’, e.g.:
9 c ! ! Q :/ Q # / 4 : T+ ] ! # Now the king was very hungry, and he said, ‘Where is the justice?’ The context will usually make clear which translation is the best on any given occasion. Moreover, in some cases more than one interpretation may be possible.
3. Prepositions A preposition is a word that is placed before a noun in order to describe a temporal or physical relationship between that noun and another noun in the sentence, e.g. ‘on’, ‘in’, ‘with’, ‘inside’.
A
ny word that you can put directly in front of the English phrase ‘the boxes’ is a preposition, e.g. in the boxes, with the boxes, around the boxes, under the boxes, inside the boxes, behind the boxes, before the boxes, etc.
Prepositions have the same function in Hebrew as in English. However, they can be divided into three classes depending on their form, as follows: A. Independent prepositions Independent prepositions are, as the name suggests, words that are not linked to the following noun in any way. The word ent preposition, as shown below:
+8 ‘next to’ is an example of an independ-
0% + i ! +8 f ' T+ ] ! The king was sitting next to the table.
42
Unit Four
B. Separable prepositions A second category consists of prepositions that may sometimes appear in the Hebrew Bible as independent words, but are usually joined to the following word by a maqqef. Such prepositions are quite logically called separable because they may either be separate or joined to the following word. You have already met a few separable prepositions; here are some of the more common ones, shown with maqqef:
2K_!¡ 4
←
with the horse
¡-4 +)' ! !¡+ with
←
¡+ 0% + i !¡+ 4
to the palace
to
←
on the table
¡+4 on
Here are a few more common separable prepositions:
+)' ! !¡0 / from the palace
←
¡0/
2K_!¡=
from
with the horse
!k f ] !¡ 4
← ←
¡= with (synonym of ¡-4 ) ¡ 4
until the banquet
until
Points to note:
¡+
¡= ¡0/
+
When and appear without maqqef, they’re pointed as and respectively. The preposition quite commonly appears in a variant form, as a prefix . In such cases, the first consonant of the following word takes a strong . Here’s an example: dagesh, representing the assimilated original of
= -/
2K_/
←
from a horse
1 ¡0/ 2K2¡0/
from a horse
It will probably come as no surprise that if the first consonant of the following word is a guttural, there’s no strong dagesh and instead there’s compensatory lengthening from Fireq to Gere:
-) % / from a wise man C. Inseparable prepositions
C , V , +
←
-) %¡0 / from a wise man
396 See Reference grammar A7 for summary
This is a small but very important category consisting of three extremely common prepositions. In contrast to independent and separable prepositions, inseparable prepositions
3. Prepositions
43
are not separate words but rather prefixes consisting of a single consonant (like the definite article and conjunction waw). The inseparable prepositions are:
C ‘in’; ‘at’; ‘with’; ‘by’
V ‘like’; ‘as’
+ ‘to’; ‘for’
The inseparable prepositions further resemble the definite article and conjunction waw in that their pointing changes depending on the first consonant of the word to which they’re prefixed. Again, the rules are simple, and in most cases they overlap with the rules for the pointing of the conjunction waw; moreover, the rules apply to all three prepositions, so you only have to memorize them once. i. Default rule Inseparable prepositions are typically pointed with vocal shewa, as follows: in/with/by a horse like/as a horse to/for a horse
2K2C 2K2V 2K2 +
←
2K2 a horse
Remember that, as usual, if the word begins with a begadkefat letter, this loses its weak dagesh when the preposition is prefixed: to/for silver ii.
52 ) +
←
silver
Words beginning with a consonant other than
52 V
' pointed with vocal shewa
Like the conjunction waw, the inseparable prepositions are pointed differently when they’re prefixed to a word beginning with any consonant (except ) pointed with vocal shewa. This is because according to the principles of Masoretic vocalization two vocal shewas may not appear next to each other. (Vocal shewas are like identical twins who are constantly fighting and must be kept separated from each other for their own safety!) If it happens that two vocal shewas do end up next to each other (due to e.g. prefixing an inseparable preposition to a word beginning with a consonant pointed with vocal shewa), the first vocal shewa is changed to a Fireq. This is called the rule of shewa. You’ll meet the rule of shewa again in other contexts during this course. As usual, a word beginning with a begadkefat letter loses the weak dagesh when the inseparable preposition is prefixed, as in the third example.
'
f C in honey
←
f G
!/Yf V
honey
like/as Solomon
←
!/Yf
L%: +
Solomon
to/for a city square
←
L%: city square
44
Unit Four
iii. Words beginning with
'
As in the case of the conjunction waw, if an inseparable preposition is prefixed to a word beginning with pointed with vocal shewa, the quiesces and the preposition is pointed with Fireq:
'
-' +' +
'
-' + ' ! K!' C
←
to/for children
children
←
in Judah
! K! ' - + fK:' C Judah
←
- + fK: '
in Jerusalem
Jerusalem
iv. Words beginning with a consonant pointed with a reduced vowel Again, as in the case of the conjunction waw, if an inseparable preposition is prefixed to a word beginning with a consonant (usually a guttural) pointed with a reduced vowel, the inseparable preposition is pointed with the corresponding short vowel. This is actually a variant of the rule of shewa, which stipulates that a vocal shewa may not be followed by a reduced vowel.
! Q 1 V
3
←
! Q 1 =/ C ← =/ !/ + ← !/
like/as a ship v. The words
ship
in truth
truth
to/for earth
earth; land
-'!Y and ! #! '
Again, as in the case of the conjunction waw, if an inseparable preposition is prefixed
-'!Y
to the word ‘God’, the beginning the word quiesces and the preposition , the vocal shewa is removed and is pointed with Gere; similarly, if prefixed to the preposition is pointed with pataF:
! #!'+ to/for the LORD
←
! #!'
! #! '
-'!Y +
the LORD
to/for God
←
-'!Y God
The inseparable prepositions have one further idiosyncracy. When one of them is prefixed to a word that is already prefixed by the definite article, the definite article is elided (disappears) and the preposition takes its place, but the original pointing of the definite article (i.e. pataF, qameG, or segol) remains. It’s as if the inseparable preposition devours the definite article and steals its pointing:
3
Again, remember that
ß
here is the short vowel qameG FaHuf.
Exercises
45
You can see this phenomenon in the following examples:
+)' ! C
←
in the palace
-': ! C
←
in the mountains
+)' ! !
2K_+
the palace
to/for the horse
-': ! !
f' V
the mountains
like/as the man
←
2K_! the horse
←
f' ! the man
4. Furtive pataT
´ / g !
You may have noticed something puzzling about the vocalization of the word ‘happy’: it has a pataF at the right side of the final consonant . This is called a furtive and (and, very rarely, ) pataT and is often found pointing the guttural consonants when they appear at the end of a word following an I-class or U-class vowel. The reason for this is that, as you remember, these gutturals prefer A-class vowels; so great is their preference that if one of them happens to be at the end of a word following some other type of vowel, it ‘furtively’ snatches an extra pataF for itself. Unlike other vowels, the furtive pataF is pronounced before the final guttural, forming a diphthong is pronounced sameaF with the preceding vowel, so for example the word rather than sameFa. In order to indicate this, in many printed Hebrew Bibles and grammars (including this one) the furtive pataF is printed just to the right of the guttural (though in some books it appears directly beneath the guttural, just like other vowels). The furtive pataF seems to break the rule that a syllable may have only one vowel, but it’s not actually counted as a vowel for purposes of syllable division: for example,
%
%
3
´ / g
´ / g has two syllables, and is divided ´ / \g . Exercises 1.
Insert the correct form of the conjunction waw into the following biblical extracts and translate each extract into English. In some cases you may have to change the pointing of the word to which you prefix the conjunction.
!i __________ f' (Numbers 22:18) ! $__________ 52 V ! __________ - '/ i ! (Genesis 2:1) 7: __________ !P / (2 Kings 4:10) _ V __________ 0% + f (Exodus 35:29)
4
4
‘bed’; ‘couch’.
.1 .2 .3 .4
46
Unit Four
:g C __________ -% + f (Ezekiel 16:19) f G __________ 0/ __________ -L+f (Isaiah 39:8) =/ __________ -% + (2 Kings 6:22) - '/ '__________ ! K! ' (Jeremiah 19:7) - + fK: (Ecclesiastes 6:2) '+ % __________ + ! (1 Kings 17:6)
5
6
2.
7
.5 .6 .7 .8 .9 .10
Insert the correct form of the inseparable preposition in brackets into the following story. In some cases you may have to change the pointing or initial consonant of the word to which you prefix the preposition.
+)' ! ! __________ C '! ' # ª[+ fK: '__________ C +)' ! '! ' # ª 4 # -' +' # T+ / !k f ] ! __________ C '! ' # ª+L !k f / :g '! ' # ª-' + '! __________ + f G __________ C ': 6 '! ' # ªT+ ] ! __________ + 0 '' __________ C ': 6K 0/ f __________C :/ Q # ª 4 ! __________ + - '/ __________ C -% + '! ' # ª7: ! __________ C 9 8 0' =/ __________ C 4 ! 8
3.
Translate the story from Exercise 2 into English.
4.
Translate the following paragraph into Biblical Hebrew. The king is in the palace. The king is sitting on the throne. The throne is next to the table. The table is empty. Where is the food? The servant is in the garden. On the earth next to the servant is meat and bread and oil and fruit and honey and wine. The servant is very happy, but the king is very hungry.
5 6 7 8
‘peace’. ‘vanity (i.e. meaninglessness)’. ‘illness’. ‘there isn’t any’ (see Unit 13).
Vocabulary
47
Creation, part 2 (Genesis 1:14–2:3)
¡'! ' # 1:19 ª- '/ i ! µ' 9 : C = : / '! ' -'!Y :/ Q # 1:14 - '] ! K8: f ' -'!Y :/ Q # 1:20 ª'4' : -L' :9 ¡'! ' # : 4 g4 Q # 1:25 ª'f' / % -L' :9 ¡'! ' # : 4¡' ! ' # 1:23 ª7: f ª- !¡= -'!Y : Q # 1:27 ª7: ! = Q%¡= -'!Y - '/ i ! KX) ' # 2:1 ª'i i ! -L' :9 ¡'! ' # : 4¡' ! ' # 1:31 ª'4' i ! -L'¡= -'!Y T: ' # 2:3 ª7: ! # Vocabulary lights the firmament of the heavens fourth let (them) swarm creeping creature(s) fifth and (he) made no English equivalent; used to signal a definite direct object (see Unit 6, Grammar point 3); not to be confused with the identical-looking separable preposition the animals of the land and (he) created human; man; Adam the sixth
'! ' #
, this is actually a and (they) were finished (as in vocal shewa; see Unit 30 for explanation) and (he) blessed the seventh
= : / - '/ i ! µ' 9 : '4' : K8: f ' 7: f 'f' / % g4 Q # ¡= 7: ! = Q% : Q # - 'i i ! KX) ' # T: ' # '4' i !
1:14
1:19 1:20
1:23 1:25
1:27
1:31 2:1 2:3
Unit Five
Contents
=L1L= # -'X / E ‘Camels and donkeys’ Noun gender Noun number (including segolate and geminate nouns) Adam and Eve (Genesis 2:7–22)
=L1L= # -'X / E -'X / E¡+4 =L)+ /K -') + / K Q # ª+)' ! !k f / L3 '! ' # +)' ! C =L)+ ] ! # -') + ] ! K f Q # ª!k f ] !¡+ =L1L=¡+ 4 # ! j C =L1L= ! # -'X / E! K f Q # ª-'] 4 & / K+) Q # - '/L' =L)+ ] ! # -') + ] ! '+ 'L 2K_! :/ Q # ªf K+) Q # - '/L' ª 4 : ' 1 # -'4 g =L1L= ! # -'X / E! #
2. Noun gender
49
Vocabulary
K f Q #
and (they) sat; and (they) lived two days* delicacies grass woe is me! full, sated (masculine plural)†
- '/L' -'] 4 & / f G '+ 'L -'4 g
camels female donkeys, she-asses again and (they) came kings queens
-'X / E =L1L= L3 K Q # -') + / =L)+ /
* See Grammar point 3. † See Grammar points 2 and 3.
Grammar points 1. Introduction to nouns As mentioned above, a noun is a word that denotes a person, place, thing, or idea. Nouns (in Hebrew and in English) may be further labelled proper or common. A proper
!/Yf ‘Solomon’, or place, e.g. - + fK: ' ‘Jerusalem’. A common noun is a noun referring to anything else, e.g. T+ / , 2K2, +)' ! . noun is the name of a specific person, e.g.
2. Noun gender Hebrew nouns can be divided into two grammatical categories called masculine and feminine. Many other languages, including French, Spanish, Italian, and Arabic, have a similar system of so-called grammatical gender, and so if you have studied one of these languages this concept will be easy for you. However, if you are encountering it for the first time the idea can be a bit difficult to get used to, because grammatical gender is not always the same as logical real-world gender. In the case of nouns referring to humans or animals, gender is usually quite straight-
T+ / is categorized as grammatically masculine, and also refers to a male entity, a king, while the noun !V + / is categorized as grammatically
forward: for example, the noun
feminine, and also refers to a female entity, a queen.
50
Unit Five
However, in the case of nouns that refer to inanimate objects or abstract concepts, grammatical gender doesn’t have anything to do with maleness or femaleness: for
! g
:'4
example, is grammatically masculine while is grammatically feminine, but there’s nothing intrinsically male or masculine about a field, nor anything intrinsically female or feminine about a city. Therefore you’ll just have to memorize the gender of nouns referring to inanimate objects and concepts. However, fortunately in Hebrew the ending of the noun usually tells you whether that noun is masculine or feminine, so with very few exceptions it’s easy to distinguish the two genders. It’s important to know the correct gender of Hebrew nouns because verbs and adjectives have to match their corresponding noun in gender, so when you start to study verbs and adjectives in the next few units you’ll need this information. In fact, you’ve already seen an example of this in the last line of the story above: the adjective nouns.
-'4 g ‘full, sated’ is masculine plural to correspond to the preceding
A. Masculine nouns
Masculine nouns don’t have a special ending. They typically end in any consonant except , e.g.
=
:! , 2K2.
! $, +)' ! , 52 V , T+ / ,
=. (However, there are a few exceptions to this, e.g. the masculine nouns = 'C ‘house’, = '$ ‘olive’, = #/ ‘death’.) They may end in any vowel except !ß , e.g. ! g , _ V . (There are only rare exceptions to this, chiefly the masculine noun !+ '+ ‘night’.) They don’t usually end in
B. Feminine nouns
Feminine nouns usually end in either of the following:
!ß , e.g. !V + / b) = , e.g. =C ‘daughter’ The !ß ending is the most common. In many cases a masculine noun referring to a male human or animal can be made to the end of the word, e.g.: feminine by adding !ß ← !2K2 2K2 a)
(female) horse, mare
(male) horse
3. Noun number (singular, dual, plural)
Not all feminine nouns have these typical endings. Some feminine nouns are ‘endingless’ and therefore look like masculine nouns. In some cases these nouns refer to a female human or animal, which makes it easy to remember that they’re still grammatically feminine, e.g.:
0L=
-
female donkey
mother
However, in other cases endingless feminine nouns refer to inanimate objects or abstract concepts, and therefore you just have to memorize that they’re grammatic-
ally feminine. You’ve already learned three such nouns:
F
51
7: , :'4 , and L%: .
rom now on new endingless feminine nouns will be indicated in the vocabulary lists (as well as in the glossaries at the end of the book) by the abbreviation (f).
C. Nouns with common gender A small number of nouns appear in the Hebrew Bible as masculine in some cases and feminine in others. Such nouns are said to have common gender. You have already
:L
0 E
08
‘light’, ‘garden’, ‘flock met several nouns with common gender, i.e. (sheep and goats)’. From now on, nouns with common gender will be labelled with (c) in the vocabulary lists (as well as in the glossaries at the end of the book).
B
e careful not to confuse the two uses of the label common: a common noun is one that doesn’t denote a specific person or place, whereas a noun with common gender is one that can be either masculine or feminine.
3. Noun number (singular, dual, plural) 397 See Reference grammar A8–9 for summary
Just as in English, nouns in Hebrew may be either singular (referring to one person, place, thing, or concept) or plural (referring to more than one). The nouns discussed in Grammar point 1 were all singular. However, in the story you met quite a few
-') + / =L)+ / -'X / E =L1L=
, , , . Moreover, in addition plural nouns, e.g. to singular and plural, Hebrew has a third category, called dual, which is used to refer to exactly two of something. You saw one example of the dual in the story, the
52
Unit Five
- '/L'
word , which was translated as ‘two days’. (The dual is actually used only in a relatively limited set of circumstances; most Biblical Hebrew nouns have only a singular and plural form). Let’s look at the singular, plural, and dual in turn (leaving the dual to last because it isn’t as common as the singular and plural). A. Singular
Singular nouns don’t have a special ending designating them as such (except, of or ). course, if they’re feminine and have one of the feminine suffixes The singular form of a noun is often called the base or lexical form. In Biblical Hebrew a singular noun can be used as a collective (designating a whole group or category). In such cases English would typically use the plural. For
!ß =
7: f
, which appeared in Genesis 1:20 at the end of example, the singular noun Unit 4, means ‘creeping creatures’ rather than a single ‘creeping creature’.
B. Plural
The plural form is used to denote more than one of the noun in question (except in the case of nouns that have a distinct dual form, in which case the plural refers to three or more). You may have noticed that all of the plural nouns in the story above end in either
-'ß or =L . Indeed, all Hebrew nouns end in one of these two plural suffixes (endings).
-'ß suffix is typically used for masculine nouns. The =L suffix is typically used for feminine nouns. The
Making a noun plural is in principle very simple.
For masculine nouns, add the
-'ß suffix:
-'2K2
←
horses
For feminine nouns ending in
2K2 horse
!ß , remove the !ß and add the =L suffix:
=L2K2 mares
←
!2K2 mare
3. Noun number (singular, dual, plural)
53
W
hen the plural suffix is added a new syllable is created and the stress shifts to this new final syllable (so that, as expected, the stress can stay on the final syllable of the word).
In the case of many nouns, this is all you have to do in order to form the plural. However, in the case of many other nouns, there are also vocalization changes that occur when the plural suffix is added. This is because of the point mentioned just above that when the plural suffix is added a new syllable is created; this can cause problems in the pointing of the word. There are two principal vowel change patterns to learn, called propretonic reduction and pretonic reduction. In addition, some nouns undergo compensatory lengthening, just like the definite article, and then there are a few variations and exceptions. We’ll examine each of these in turn. i. Propretonic reduction This is the most typical vowel change in plural nouns. It affects nouns with a tone-long vowel (typically qameG, but sometimes Gere) in an open, pretonic syllable, such as ‘word’; ‘thing’. When the plural suffix is added, the new syllable structure results in that initial tone-long vowel being left in an open, propretonic syllable. This is not allowed, and so the tone-long vowel is reduced to vocal shewa. This phenomenon is called propretonic reduction and you’ll meet it again in other contexts later in this course. Study the following example:
: G
-': G
←
-': G
←
words; things
: G words; things
propretonic reduction of tone-long vowel to shewa
impossible pointing: tone-long vowel in open, propretonic syllable
tone-long vowel in open pretonic syllable
Because guttural consonants cannot take vocal shewa, in words beginning with a guttural consonant the tone-long vowel reduces to FaHef pataF instead. (This doesn’t apply to , which can take a vocal shewa.)
:
-'/ ) %
←
-'/ ) %
wise men FaHef pataF instead of vocal shewa
←
-) % wise man
impossible: guttural cannot take vocal shewa
tone-long vowel in open pretonic syllable
54
Unit Five
ii. Pretonic reduction There’s a category of masculine nouns whose singular form has the vowel pattern
&6 f
ßß ß¥ ,
e.g. ‘judge’. This type of noun is called an active participle. We’ll examine active participles in more detail in Unit 20, but for now all you need to know about them is this:
Active participles don’t undergo propretonic reduction in the plural because their first vowel, Folem, is historically long (even though in many cases, such as the one shown here, it’s spelled defectively). Instead, the second vowel of such nouns is reduced to shewa. This phenomenon is called pretonic reduction, because it affects the pretonic syllable of the plural noun. In contrast to propretonic reduction, there’s no logical reason to reduce the vowel of the pretonic syllable, because tone-long vowels are commonly found in open, pretonic syllables; this is simply the convention for this category of noun (and, like propretonic reduction, will be encountered again later in this course). You can see this principle in the following examples:
-': 6 2 scribes
←
:6 2
-'& 6 f
scribe
judges
←
&6 f judge
As in the case of propretonic reduction, a guttural consonant takes FaHef pataF instead of vocal shewa:
-' 1! V priests
←
0! V priest
iii. Segolates There’s another special category of nouns called segolates that form their plurals slightly differently. The most common segolate patterns are easily recognizable: a. Masculine/endingless feminine segolates
Masculine and endingless feminine segolates usually have two syllables, are stressed on the first syllable, and have a segol pointing their second syllable, e.g.
4 ,
T+ / , + ' ‘child’, 7: , :6 2 ‘scroll’; ‘letter’, -: V ‘vineyard’, f % ‘month’.
If the second or third consonant is a guttural, both syllables are instead pointed
with pataF, e.g. ‘lad’. Segolates take this characteristic pattern for historical reasons. At an early (prebiblical) phase in the history of Hebrew, segolate nouns were monosyllabic with
:4 1
3. Noun number (singular, dual, plural)
55
a short vowel (either pataF, Fireq, or qameG FaHuf/qibbuG). For example,
T+ /
S+ /
-: V
-: V
:6 2
was originally and was originally , while was originally . At some stage these final consonant clusters became difficult to pronounce, so a helping vowel segol was inserted between the original two final consonants, and the words became disyllabic (composed of two syllables). This caused the original short vowel of the first syllable to change, often to segol as well but sometimes to Gere or, in the case of qameG FaHuf/qibbuG, to Folem.
:6 2
b. Feminine segolates ending in
!ß
Feminine segolates usually have two syllables, with the first syllable closed and
!ß
!V + /
the second syllable ending in , e.g. . This is because in the feminine singular form (as well as in other cases that we’ll examine later in the course), the original short vowel reappears. There’s no sure way of knowing what the original vowel of a segolate noun is, so just learn them as you come across them and don’t worry about it. In later units you’ll encounter other circumstances in which the original vowel of the segolate returns, and you’ll become familiar with the most common ones.
The plural of both types of segolates is formed as follows:
-': 4 1
←
lads
=L)+ / queens
←
:4 1
=L8:
lad
lands
!V + /
-': 6 2
queen
scrolls; letters
←
7: -') + / land
←
←
kings
:6 2 -' 4 scroll; letter
king ←
slaves
-' + ' children
T+ / 4 slave
←
+ ' child
Points to note: The first syllable undergoes propretonic reduction, the second syllable is for maspointed with qameG, and then the plural ending is added (
-'ß
=L
culine nouns and for feminine nouns). If the first consonant is a guttural, it’s pointed with FaHef pataF instead of vocal shewa, as in the second example on the right and the top example in the middle column. The stress moves to the end of the word when the plural suffix is added, even if it was on the first syllable in the singular.
f %
If the singular form has Folem pointing the first syllable, e.g. , the plural has FaHef qameG (even if its first consonant is not a guttural, as in the left-hand example below).
56
Unit Five
-'f 9
←
holinesses
f 9
-'f %
holiness
months
←
f % month
T
here are also other, less common, segolate patterns:
a) b)
ß 'ß , e.g. = 'C . % 1 ‘bronze’. Trisyllabic (three-syllable) feminine segolates ending in = , e.g. =f
Masculine/endingless feminine segolates with the form
All segolates are labelled with (s) in subsequent vocabulary lists and in the glossaries at the end of the book.
iv. Geminates There’s another special category of nouns called geminates. Geminate nouns typically consist of a monosyllabic closed syllable. The term geminate derives from the Latin word for ‘twin’, and this is a fitting description of these nouns, because the last con‘nation’ sonant is actually ‘twinned’, i.e. doubled; for example, the geminate noun . You can’t see this in the singular because technically consists of the consonants the last letter of a word is not allowed to take strong dagesh; however, when the plural suffixes are added, the doubling returns, as in this example:
-4
-/3
-'] 4
←
nations
-4 nation
If the singular geminate noun is pointed with a long vowel, this reduces to a short vowel:
Gere reduces to Fireq Folem reduces to qibbuG
-'d % statutes
←
9%
=LC+
statute
hearts
←
+ heart
If the final consonant of the geminate noun is a guttural, this can’t double. Therefore, if the singular form is pointed with a short vowel, the plural undergoes either compensatory lengthening or virtual doubling according to the same principles that you learned for the definite article in Unit 3. (Compensatory lengthening is by far the most common pattern, as shown below; virtual doubling is restricted to a small number of geminates ending in .)
%
-': ! mountains
←
:! mountain
3. Noun number (singular, dual, plural)
57
N
ot all monosyllabic nouns are geminates. As you become more familiar with Biblical Hebrew you’ll get to know the most common geminates and develop a feel for recognizing new ones. In order to help you, all geminate nouns are labelled with (g) in subsequent vocabulary lists and in the glossaries at the end of the book.
v. Nouns ending in
! !ß
We’ve already seen that feminine nouns ending in lose this ending when the plural suffix is added. The same is true of masculine nouns ending in : the final vowel are replaced directly by the plural suffix, e.g.: and
!
!
=L g
←
! g
fields (see also point vii)
field
vi. Nouns with irregular consonant or vowel changes in the plural At this point it may not come as a surprise to discover that, in addition to the rules you’ve just learned, some nouns have irregular plural forms with unexpected consonant and/or vowel changes. Some of the most common of these nouns are shown below, and in future units new nouns with irregular plurals will be indicated with the label (p) in the vocabulary lists.
=L2 V
←
chairs; thrones (strong dagesh is lost)
=L1C
←
daughters
-'f 1
←
women (see also point vii)
-': 4
←
cities (see also point vii)
_ V
-'X / E
chair; throne
camels
=C
-'f 1
daughter
men
!i
-'/'
woman
days
:'4
-' 1C
city
sons
←
+/ E camel
←
f' man
←
-L' day
←
0C son
vii. Plural suffixes with ‘mismatched’ gender
-'ß
=L
suffix is typically used with masculine nouns and the suffix Although the is typically used with feminine nouns, certain masculine nouns form their plural with
=L and certain feminine nouns form their plural with -'ß . Just memorize these irregular plurals as you encounter them, and don’t let the plural suffix trick you – the
58
Unit Five
gender of a noun is determined by the singular form, so a noun that is masculine in the singular, e.g.
0% + f , is still masculine in the plural even though its plural form
=L1% + f , which looks as if it should be feminine. Similarly, a noun that is feminine in the singular, e.g. !i , is still feminine in the plural even though its plural form is -'f 1, which looks as if it should be masculine. Nouns that we have already is
met belonging to this category are listed below. In future units, this type of unexpected plural suffix will be provided in the vocabulary lists.
=L : =L1% + f ←
Masculine nouns with plural suffix
tables (still masculine!) Feminine nouns with plural suffix
0% + f table (masculine)
-'ß : -'f 1
women (still feminine!)
-': 4
!i
←
woman (feminine)
:'4
←
cities (still feminine!)
-' 1f
city (feminine)
! 1f
←
years (still feminine!)
year (feminine)
C. Dual The dual of nouns is very easy to form and to recognize: it’s formed by adding the suffix
- 'ß to the singular form of the noun, as in the following examples: - ' ' (a pair of) hands
←
'
(f) hand
- '/L'
←
two days
-L' day
Segolate nouns revert to their original historic form in the dual, i.e. they become monosyllabic with their original short vowel, and the dual ending is added to that. There aren’t that many of these dual segolate forms, so just memorize them as you come across them:
- '+ : (a pair of) feet; (a pair of) legs
←
+ :
(f) foot; leg
Exercises
!ß
!
59
=
In the case of feminine nouns ending in , the is replaced by when the dual suffix is added. Moreover, if the word has more than one syllable, propretonic reduction occurs:
- '= 1f two years
←
! 1f year
You might see some other slight pointing variations on dual forms, but nothing to stop you from recognizing them, so just learn them as you encounter them. In Biblical Hebrew the dual form cannot be used for all nouns; rather, it’s quite restricted, appearing only on certain nouns and in certain circumstances. It’s used only in the following cases: i.
nouns denoting body parts that occur naturally in pairs, e.g.
ii.
nouns referring to lengths of time, e.g.
- ' '
- '= 1f numerals denoting two of something, e.g. - '= / ‘two hundred’
iii. iv. A few frequently occurring nouns look dual but have a singular or plural meaning (usually because they evolved from other forms and only coincidentally resemble duals). The most common of these are listed below: water (plural form that coincidentally resembles a dual) sky; heavens (plural form that coincidentally resembles a dual) Jerusalem (singular) Egypt (the dual form may refer to the historical two united Egyptian kingdoms)
F
- '/ - '/ f - + fK: ' - ': 8 /
rom now on new dual forms will be indicated in the vocabulary lists (as well as in the glossaries at the end of the book) by the abbreviation (d).
Exercises 1.
Give the gender and number of the highlighted nouns in the following extracts from Genesis and translate each extract into English. (Genesis 1:1)
7: ! = # -'/ i ! = -'!Y : C ='f : C G 7: ! f k (Genesis 1:11) f (Genesis 1:19) '4' : -L' :9 ¡'!'# :4¡'!'#
.1 .2 3
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Unit Five
- !¡= -'!Y : Q # !¡+ :/ Q # (Genesis 3:1) !i 1 'k f (Genesis 4:19) -'f f/ % (Genesis 5:11) -' 1f -' 1C +L Q # (Genesis 5:30) =L1 K V (Genesis 7:19) -': ! !¡+ ! :% - '= 1f (Genesis 11:10) +KC]
(Genesis 1:27)
1
2
3
4
2.
.4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 .10
Rewrite the following paragraph, making the highlighted nouns plural (remember to make any necessary pointing changes).
=C ! # 0C ! ª0% + f +8 _ V¡+ 4 +)' ! !V + ] ! # T+ ] ! ª! j C 0L= ! # +/ E! # 2K_! ª-: V C 4 ! # 3.
Translate the completed paragraph from Exercise 2 into English.
4.
Translate the following paragraph into Biblical Hebrew. In this and subsequent such exercises, don’t translate words in square brackets. The horse is in the field with the camels and with the [female] donkeys. The camels and the donkeys are full, but the horse is hungry. Where are the delicacies? The delicacies are inside the palace, with the kings and with the queens. And where is the grass? The grass is inside the camels and the donkeys.
Adam and Eve (Genesis 2:7–22) This is the story of the creation of the first humans.
ª!/ !¡0 / :6 4 - !¡= -'!Y ! #! ' :8' Q # 2:7 ª- !¡= -f -g Q # 0 4 C¡0 E -'!Y ! #! ' 3P Q # 2:8 1 2 3
4
‘two’. ‘five’. ‘and he fathered’.
+KC] ! :%
‘after the flood’ (see Units 8–9 for the biblical flood story).
Vocabulary
61
ªLG + - ! =L'! L&¡+ -'!Y ! #! ' :/ Q # 2:18 =% %d Q # - !¡+ 4 !/ G : k -'!Y ! #! ' +a Q # 2:21 ª !i + 3+ c !¡= -'!Y ! #! ' 0 Q # 2:22 ª#'= 3+ c / 5
Vocabulary
:8' Q # :6 4 3P Q # 0 4 -g Q # ¡+ L& =L'! LG + +a Q # !/ G : k %d Q # =% *#'= 3+ c / 0 Q # (f; s) 3+ 8
and (he) created dust and (he) planted Eden and (he) placed not good being; to be by himself and (he) cast deep sleep and (he) took one (f) of his ribs and (he) built rib * Note that the sequence
5
In this case
+
#'ß
at the end of a word is pronounced -av.
should be translated as ‘into’.
2:7
2:8
2:18
2:21
2:22
Unit Six
Contents
-'+ V ! ‘The vessels’ The Biblical Hebrew verbal system The qal qaHal The definite direct object marker Parsing verbs The serpent (Genesis 3:1–14)
¡=Ơ=
-'+ V ! K ! !% 6 i !¡+ # 4 !¡+ T+ ] ! :/ Q # !k f ] '! ' # K14 ' + K:/ !% 6 i ! # 4 ! # ª0 '' K18 6 % 'V -'+ V !¡= ª-'+ V !¡= k 1 ! ^! 4 !¡+ T+ ] ! :/ Q # ª-'+ V ! ! Q !% 6 i !¡+ T+ ] ! :/ Q # ª-'+ V !¡= 'k 1 + :/ 4 ! # ¡= 'k 1 + !: / !% 6 i ! # ª-'+ V !¡= k 1 ! ^! !k f ] C :f =L)+ ] !¡+ # -') + ] !¡+ T+ ] ! :/ Q # ª-'+ V ! -'+ V !¡= K1 1 + K:/ !] ! # ª-'+ V !¡= -k 1 ! ^! ª!/ % + / K18 6 % !k 4 #
Vocabulary
63
Vocabulary here: best untranslated (see Unit 8, Grammar point 2) maidservant, slavegirl bring (p) definite direct object marker* vessels
(singular:
because (also: that, indeed, rather, when, if; to be discussed in later units) we want/wanted (usually followed by the inseparable preposition , which remains untranslated)†
C
(they) said† no; not (we) know/knew† (you, masculine singular) stole† (he) said† (I) stole† (you, feminine singular) stole† (she) said† who; which (you, masculine plural) stole† they (m) (we) stole† now war * See Grammar point 3. † See Grammar point 2.
'! ' # !% 6 f K ! ¡= '+ V ) -'+ V 'V K18 6 % K:/ + K14 ' k 1 E :/ 'k 1 E k 1 E !: / :f -k 1 E !] ! K1 1 E !k 4 !/ % + /
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Unit Six
Grammar points 1. The Biblical Hebrew verbal system Until now, we have for the most part been reading texts without verbs (with a few
:/ Q #
exceptions like ). However, Biblical Hebrew is very much a verb-centred language, and in the story above we have started to encounter them in larger numbers for the first time. Before we take a detailed look at the verbs presented in the story, there are a few key points that you need to know about the Biblical Hebrew verbal system. A. Roots Biblical Hebrew verbs (as well as many nouns) are based around a system of triliteral (three-letter) consonantal roots, each of which has a basic meaning of its own; each root can be combined with different vowels, prefixes, and suffixes, to create different specific meanings. You’ve already encountered roots in some of the nouns that we’ve
T+ /
/+
T
is the three consonants , , and , in that learned: for example, the root of order. Each root is typically represented by the three consonants with a dot separating each one, e.g.
T+/. Roots are not actual words, just abstractions based on the
fact that we can see the same three consonants appearing over and over in the same order in various words that all have a related meaning. For example, the root
T+/
means something to do with the concept of ‘king’, ‘kingdom’, ‘royalty’, or ‘ruling’, and appears in a variety of different nouns and verbs, which through the use of different vowel patterns, prefixes, and suffixes, all convey different meanings that are somehow connected to this basic concept. Look at this selection of different nouns and verbs with the root
T+/: he ruled
he caused someone to rule he was caused to rule
T+ / T'+ / ! T+ / !
king queen kingdom
T+ / !V + / =K)+ /
The fact that Biblical Hebrew is based on this root system is actually a huge advantage for you as a student. This is because when you encounter a new word, if you recognize the root there’s a very good chance that you’ll be able to work out what it means by combining the meaning of the root with the information provided to you by the various vowel patterns, prefixes, and suffixes with which it’s combined. The way in which this works will become clear over the next few units.
1. The Biblical Hebrew verbal system
65
B. Conjugations Hebrew verbs are formed by slotting a given root into a specific combination of vowels, prefixes, and suffixes in order to provide the reader or listener with the following information about the action in question:
Tense: When an action happens i. Past ii. Present iii. Future
Aspect: How an action happens, e.g. did it occur once or many times; was it complete or in progress?
Biblical Hebrew has several conjugations (verbal patterns), each of which is used to indicate a different tense and/or aspect. The main conjugations are the qaVal, yiqVol, wayyiqVol, weqaVal, volitives, infinitives, and participles. Don’t try to memorize these yet; we’ll examine them over the course of many units! Within each conjugation, any given verb conjugates (changes shape by the addition of prefixes and/or suffixes) in order to give the reader or listener the following information about the subject (the person or thing doing the action of the verb):
Person (who is doing the action) i. First person (the speaker/speakers) ii. Second person (the person being addressed) iii. Third person (someone else)
Gender i. Masculine ii. Feminine iii. Common (both masculine and feminine combined)
Number i. ii.
Singular Plural (there are no dual verbs in Biblical Hebrew)
The closest English analogy to Biblical Hebrew conjugations is tenses (i.e. past, present, future). However, Biblical Hebrew conjugations don’t work in exactly the same way as English (or Spanish, French, German, etc.) tenses, so the analogy is not perfect. For example, the same Biblical Hebrew conjugation may be used to indicate past, present, and future actions, whereas in European languages, the past tense is used only to indicate past actions, the present tense to indicate present actions, etc. Don’t worry about
66
Unit Six
this, as we’ll look at the uses of each Biblical Hebrew conjugation in turn so that you’ll become familiar with them.
I
f you’ve studied Romance languages before, note that the term conjugation in Biblical Hebrew grammar doesn’t mean the same thing as the term conjugation in e.g. French, Spanish, or Latin.
C. Stems The final key feature of the Biblical Hebrew verbal system is called the stem (also known by the Hebrew term binyan, meaning ‘construction’ or ‘building’).
A stem is a group of verbs that all resemble each other in that they have the same vowel patterns, prefixes, etc. There are seven major verbal stems in Biblical Hebrew. In this unit we’ll start learning the first stem, called the qal, Hebrew for ‘light’ or ‘easy’ – a nice place to begin! Don’t worry about the other stems yet; we’ll study them later. If you’ve studied European languages before, just note for now that the term stem in Biblical Hebrew grammar doesn’t mean the same thing as the term stem in e.g. Latin or Greek. The uses of the various Biblical Hebrew stems will become apparent when we begin to examine them further on in the course.
2. The qal qaVal The verbs that you saw in the story all belong to the qal stem and the qaHal conjugation (also known as the suffix conjugation or perfect). In a nutshell, this conjugation is typically used for various types of complete, usually past, actions, though it can sometimes be used for present and even future actions as well. We’ll first look at how this conjugation is formed, and then discuss its uses in more detail. A. Forming the qal qaval
As mentioned, each conjugation has different forms indicating the person, gender, and number of the subject. In the case of the qaHal conjugation, this is indicated by suffixes. (This is the reason that some grammarians call the qaHal the ‘suffix conjugation’.) The suffixes are attached to the verbal root, which is pointed with A-class vowels. The traditional arrangement of the conjugation starts with the third person masculine singular (‘he’) form because this is the simplest form, with no suffixes.
2. The qal qatal ˙
67
A chart showing all of the verb forms in a conjugation is called a paradigm.1 The qal qaHal paradigm is shown below. For now we’ll concentrate on strong (standard, regular) roots. Later in the course we’ll look at weak roots, which differ from the strong patterns because they contain gutturals or other problematic letters that wreak havoc by causing pointing and other changes. The verb used to illustrate the conjugation is the model root , which means ‘kill’. This verb is not actually very common in Biblical Hebrew, but is useful for illustrating conjugations because it has no gutturals, begadkefat letters, or other problematic consonants. (The name of the conjugation, qaHal, is actually just a transliteration of the third person masculine singular form of this root.) Each form is accompanied by a label consisting of a number and two letters. The numerals 1, 2, and 3 represent the person (first, second, third), the first letter indicates number (m = masculine; f = feminine; c = common), and the second letter indicates number (s = singular; p = plural). You can then use this paradigm as a model for forming other verbs; all qaHal verbs of the qal stem with strong roots conjugate (change their form) in exactly the same way. (Don’t worry about whether a given verb belongs to this conjugation – all the new verbs introduced in this unit do!)
+&9
Qal qaVal Plural
Singular
+& 9 K+& 9 they killed
3ms
he killed 3cp
!+ & 9
3fs
she killed
-k + & 9
2mp
you killed
0k + & 9 we killed
1
2ms
you killed 2fp
you killed
K1+ & 9
k + & 9 k + & 9
2fs
you killed 1cp
'k + & 9
1cs
I killed
The term paradigm is not restricted to verbs, but can also refer to a chart of different noun or adjective forms, as you’ll see in later units.
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Unit Six
Points to note: The English translation given below each form is just a rough guide to the meaning; as we’ll see below, each of these forms could potentially be translated in various other ways depending on the context. The first person singular and plural, and the third person plural, have common gender. In contrast to English, the second person has separate masculine and feminine forms. In Hebrew the person, gender, and number are indicated in the verb, so there’s
' 1 !] !
no need to use pronouns (e.g. , ) in conjunction with them, except for emphasis. If one of the root consonants is a begadkefat letter, remember to add the weak dagesh as normal, according to the rules that you have learned. The 3fs and 3cp forms have a vertical line to the left of the qameG pointing the first syllable. This line is called a meteg (literally meaning ‘bridle’) and it’s there to tell you that, contrary to appearances, the first syllable is open, and should be read as the tone-long vowel qameG rather therefore the symbol than as the short vowel qameG FaHuf. In other words, just like a bridle on a horse, the job of the meteg is to say, ‘Woah there, reader! Don’t just assume that this is a qameG FaHuf – stop a minute to think about it!’ Unfortunately, in the Hebrew Bible the meteg is not used consistently in 3fs and 3cp qal qaHal forms, but you should use it whenever you translate such a form into Biblical Hebrew. Note also that because the syllable with meteg is open, a begadkefat letter immediately following it does not take weak dagesh, e.g. ‘she wrote’; ‘they wrote’. Note that the 2fs form ends in two consonants, which is unexpected because it violates the normal rules of Biblical Hebrew syllable structure. Note also that the final consonant is pointed with a silent shewa, which is unusual (with the exception of ). The 2ms, 2fs, 1cs, and 1cp forms are all stressed on the penultimate syllable. Note that all these forms have a consonantal suffix (suffix beginning with a consonant). The 3fs and 3cp forms have a vocal shewa pointing the second syllable. Note that these two forms have a vocalic suffix (suffix beginning with a vowel). If the first radical (root letter) is a guttural, the first syllable of the 2mp and 2fp forms is pointed (as expected) with FaHef pataF instead of vocal shewa, . e.g. Similarly, if the second radical is a guttural, the second syllable of the 3fs
ß
! = V
K = V
T
-k : /
and 3cp forms is pointed with FaHef pataF instead of vocal shewa, e.g.
!+ f ‘she asked’, from the root +f.
2. The qal qatal ˙
1
If the third radical is , this assimilates into the 1cp suffix and is indicated by a strong dagesh; moreover, the preceding radical is not pointed with silent ‘we gave’. shewa, e.g. The 1cs form of the root ‘give’ is , which is irregular (the assimilates into the first consonant of the suffix).
K^= 1
69
B. Uses of the qaval
0=1
'k = 1
1
404 See Reference grammar B1 for summary
The qaHal (not just of the qal stem, but also of all stems to be studied subsequently) is commonly used in the following ways: i. Preterite actions The most common use of the qaHal is to convey a one-off action that took place at some point in the past. In this respect it’s comparable to the English preterite tense (also called the ‘past simple’), e.g. ‘he said’, ‘he knew’, ‘he stole’. However, the qaHal with this type of meaning is used less widely than the English preterite: it’s chiefly used in a few specific contexts, shown below: a.
+ (see Grammar point 2C), e.g.: -'+ V !¡= 'k 1 +
Immediately following the negative particle
I did not steal the vessels. b.
In contexts involving a contrast with the previous clause (part of a sentence), such as following the conjunction waw when it means ‘but’ or ‘whereas’, e.g.:
-'+ V !¡= K1 1 + K:/ !] ! # But they said, ‘We did not steal the vessels!’ c.
Following a new subject, often in order to highlight a contrast with a previous subject, e.g.:
ª-'+ V !¡= k 1 ! ^! 4 !¡+ T+ ] ! :/ Q # ª-'+ V !¡= 'k 1 + :/ 4 ! # And the king said to the servant, ‘Look here, you stole the vessels!’ But the servant said, ‘I did not steal the vessels!’ d.
Following a conjunction (word that links two clauses or sentences) such as ‘who’, ‘which’; ‘if’, ‘when’, ‘as’, e.g.: ‘because’, ‘that’;
:f :f V -'] 4 & ] !¡= K+) :f -') + ] !
the kings who ate the delicacies
'V
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Unit Six
ii. Present perfect This usage corresponds to the English present perfect, i.e. ‘I have stolen’, ‘I have said’. It’s used to convey an action that happened at some unspecified point in the past and has an effect on the present. It can be difficult to distinguish this usage from the preterite, and often a qaHal may be translated in either way, as in:
-'+ V !¡= k 1 ! ^! ‘Look here, you have stolen the vessels!’ Or: ‘Look here, you stole the vessels!’ iii. Pluperfect The qaHal is often used to indicate a past action that was already finished by the time that the main past action of the sentence took place. This corresponds to the English pluperfect, i.e. ‘he had stolen’, ‘he had said’. In such cases the qaHal follows its subject, ‘because’; ‘that’, ‘who’; which is usually introduced by the conjunction ‘which’, or the conjunction waw meaning ‘now’, e.g.:
'V
:f
-'+ V !¡= 1 E 4 ! 'V T+ ] ! :/ Q # 2
And the king said that2 the servant had stolen the vessels. iv. Present states Although the qaHal is most commonly found in past tense contexts, it may be found in present (and even occasionally future) ones as well. The most common non-past use of the qaHal is to convey mental and emotional states, such as loving, hating, knowing, or wanting. In this respect the qaHal actually corresponds to an English present tense rather than a past tense, which may take some getting used to. In the case of such verbs, the context determines whether the qaHal has a past or present meaning, because technically it could have either. You saw two examples of this in the story:
ª0 '' K18 6 % 'V -'+ V !¡= K ! ‘Bring the vessels, for we want wine!’
ª-'+ V ! ! Q K14 ' + ‘We don’t know where the vessels are.’ So far these are the only two verbs we’ve encountered that may be used in this way, but we’ll encounter others as the course continues.
2
See Unit 8, Grammar point 3 for an explanation of this use of
'V
.
3. The definite direct object marker
¡= Ơ=
71
Finally, the qaHal may be used in a variety of future contexts. These include actions that the speaker or writer has decided to perform but hasn’t yet carried out; actions that started in the past but will continue into the future; future perfect actions (i.e. ‘he will have eaten the food by the time we get home’); and in dreams and prophecies. Don’t worry about these for now – they’re much less common than the uses discussed above, and will be pointed out when you come across them. C. Negating the qaval
+
(meaning In order to negate (make negative) a qaVal verb, the negative particle ‘no’ or ‘not’) is placed immediately before it. In the story above you saw several examples of this, e.g.:
-'+ V !¡= K1 1 + ‘We did not steal the vessels!’
3. The definite direct object marker
¡=Ơ=
Direct object is the term used to refer to the noun that suffers the action of the verb in a sentence. For example, in the following sentence, cause it’s the one being stolen:
-'+ V is the direct object be-
-'+ V 1 E 4 ! # Now the servant had stolen vessels. In Biblical Hebrew the direct object usually comes after the verb, as in the above example. However, if the subject comes after the verb (as it often does), the direct object comes immediately after the subject, e.g.:
-'+ V 4 ! 1 E The servant stole vessels. If the direct object is prefixed by the definite article, it’s immediately preceded by the definite . This marker is frequently direct object marker (also called accusative marker) , e.g.: joined to the direct object with maqqef and pointed with segol, i.e.
=
¡=
-'+ V !¡= 4 ! 1 E The servant stole the vessels. This can take some getting used to because it doesn’t have a direct English equivalent. The following illustrations help to show you how important it is to make sure you can
72
Unit Six
¡= can help you with this. In the picture on the left, 2K_! is the subject while -% X ! (preceded ) is the direct object. In the picture on the right, it’s the opposite! by ¡= tell the difference between the subject and the direct object, and how
-% X !¡= 2K_! +)
2K_!¡= -% X ! +)
The horse ate the bread.
The bread ate the horse.
4. Parsing verbs
419 See Reference grammar D1 for summary
Parsing means ‘grammatically analysing’. When studying Biblical Hebrew, parsing is a very common method of working out which grammatical forms you are dealing with (noun, verb, conjugation, person, gender, number, etc.). Therefore it’s good to get into the practice of parsing new words as soon as possible, as this will help you to understand and translate. All different parts of speech can be parsed, but let’s start with verbs. Parsing a verb consists of listing the following information: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
Verb (as opposed to other parts of speech, e.g. noun, preposition, etc.) Stem (so far we’ve only done the qal, so this is easy for now) Conjugation (again, so far we’ve only done the qaHal) Person Gender Number Root (commonly indicated by the symbol √) Translation
Let’s see an example of how parsing works, using the verb
!: / 1. 2. 3.
Verb Qal QaHal
!: / :
Exercises
4. 5. 6. 7. 8.
73
3rd Feminine Singular √ ‘(she) said’
:/
If this seems daunting, the following phrase should help you remember the list of what to include in parsing. Each of the highlighted letters represents the first letter of each point on the list, i.e. very = verb; serious = stem, etc. Very Serious Condition – Pagan Riots Today! Moreover, as you practise parsing you’ll quickly find that it comes more and more naturally to you and soon you’ll be able to do it automatically. We’ll look at parsing other parts of speech later in the course.
Exercises 1.
Parse the qaHal verbs in the story above.
2.
Insert the qal qaHal form indicated in brackets into the following sentences, and translate each completed sentence into English.
!V + ] ! # T+ ] ! (3cp √ :/) __________ -'+ V ! ! Q (1cp √ 3 ') __________ + # 0'' C (1cp √ 76%) 'V (1cs √ 3 ') __________ 4 !¡+ T+ ] ! :/ Q # -'+ V !¡= (2ms √ 1E) __________ + __________ !% 6 i !¡X !V + ] ! (3fs √ :/) __________ -= (2fs √ %9+ ‘take’) __________ + 'V (1cs √ 3 ') !¡+ T+ ] ! :/ Q # (1cs √ 3 ') __________ -') + ] -'+ V !¡= (2mp √ 1E) __________ 'V -= -' 4 ! (3cp √ 1E) __________ + 'V __________
3
.1
.2
.3
4
3 4
Here: ‘that’. ‘them’ (see Unit 17).
.4
.5
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Unit Six
+ # -') + ] ! (3cp √ f' ‘sit’; ‘live’) __________ : G (3cp √ :/) =L)+ ] !¡+ !V + ] ! (3fs √ :/) __________ -'+ V !¡= (2fp √ %9+) __________ ! ^! __________ + =L)+ ] ! (3cp √ :/) __________ -': G !¡= (1cp √ ! ‘like’; ‘love’) __________ :f (2fs √ :/) !/ % + / C (1cp √ 76%) __________ !k 4 #
__________
3.
.6
.7
.8
.9
Translate the following paragraph into Biblical Hebrew. Now (lit.: and) the horse had taken the fruit and the meat and the bread, but the horse had not stolen the vessels. The horse did not know where the vessels [were]. But the horse said to the camels and to the [female] donkeys, ‘[You] have taken the vessels!’ because [he] did not like the camels and the donkeys. The camels and the donkeys had not stolen the vessels, but they ate the fruit and the meat and the bread because they liked the food and [they] did not like the horse.
The serpent (Genesis 3:1–14) This text describes how a serpent tempted Eve and her husband to eat the forbidden fruit of the Tree of Knowledge. Note: here and in future vocabularies, verb types that we have studied will be parsed, whereas verb types that we haven’t yet studied will simply be translated.
-'!Y :/ ¡' V 5 !i !¡+ :/ Q # -K:4 ! '! f% ^! # 3:1 ': a / f% ^!¡+ !i ! :/ k # 3:2 ª0 E! 74 +V/ K+) = + -'!Y :/ 0 E!¡TL= C :f 74 ! ': a /K 3:3 ª+) 1 0 E!¡7 4 =L/¡+ !i !¡+ f% ^! :/ Q # 3:4 ª0K=/ k¡0 a K+) = + :/ Q # 3:13 ªIf' +¡ E 0k k # +) k # %d k # 3:6 ª0K=/ k f% ^! !i ! :/ k # ='g 4 =O¡!/ !i + -'!Y ! #! ' ª!k :K: f% ^!¡+ -'!Y ! L! ' :/ Q # 3:14 ª' 1' i ! ª- !¡= f: ' # 3:24
Vocabulary
75
Vocabulary serpent (he) was cunning is it indeed so that? you (mp) must eat every (here: any) tree/trees (of) and (she) said we may eat lest you (mp) die you will indeed die and (she) took and (she) ate and (she) gave also her husband what [is] this? you (fs) did/have done (he) tricked me cursed you (ms) and (he) banished
f% 1 ! '! -K:4 ¡'V 5 K+) k (g) + V 74 :/ k # +) 1 0K=/ k¡0 a 0K=/ k =L/ %d k # +) k # 0k k # ¡- E *If' =O¡!/ ='g 4 ' 1' i ! :K: !k f: ' #
3:1
3:2
3:3 3:4 3:6
3:13
3:14
3:24
* Note that the final consonant is pointed with what looks like a dagesh. This is called a mappiq and will be discussed in Unit 14, Grammar point 1. It has no effect on the pronunciation and you don’t need to worry about it for now.
Unit Seven
Contents
!/ % + ] ! ‘The war’ The qal yiqHol Cain and Abel (Genesis 4:2–11)
!/ % + ] ! ªf C :'4 !¡= 5 :g fKV T+ / :/ Q # :'4 !¡= 5 :g = ') '+¡'L T+ ] ! :/ Q # ¡= V+ -L =V + / :/ k # ªf C ¡= ' V + = ') '+¡'L T+ ] ! :/ Q # ª-4 ! +)' ! !¡= 5 :g1 -') + ] !¡+ ) K:/ Q # ª-4 ! ¡= K6: g = ') '+¡'L T+ ] ! :/ Q # ªf C TY/ 1 =L)+ ] !¡+ ) ! 1: / k # ªf C +)' ! ! ! 1) Y / = ') '+¡'L T+ ] ! :/ Q # ª7: C T+ ] ! 9 c ! ! Q 2K_! :/ Q # ª7: -'+ ) K 1 ' =L)+ ] ! # -') + ] ! # -L+f f : ' ª!/ % + / Kf: ' - #
Vocabulary
77
Vocabulary Ethiopia the king of Ethiopia (I) will burn (can also mean am burning, can burn, could burn, used to burn)*; often accompanied by ‘with fire (lit.: with the fire)’
fKV fKV T+ / 5 :g
f C fire
(you ms) will burn* (and) (she) said Edom (biblical land bordering on Israel) the queen of Edom (I) will capture* (you fs) will capture* all (also every)
f 5 :g k :/ k # -L -L =V + / V+ ' V + k ¡+V (f)
Note: this word is unstressed, and therefore the vowel should be read as qameG FaHuf (and) (they m) said (we) will burn* (you mp) will burn* (and) (they f) said (we) will rule* (you fp) will rule* (he) seeks* peace (they m) steal* (they m) seek* * See Grammar point 1.
K:/ Q # 5 :g 1 K6: g k ! 1: / k # TY/ 1 ! 1) Y / k f : ' -L+f K 1 ' Kf: '
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Grammar points The qal yiqVol The yiqVol (also called the prefix conjugation or imperfect) is the next verbal conjugation that we’ll look at. In both its form and its function, it may be helpul to think of the yiqHol as the opposite or mirror image of the qaHal.
In contrast to the qaHal, the yiqHol is formed by adding prefixes to the root. (This is the reason that it’s also called the ‘prefix conjugation’). While the qaHal is used primarily for preterite and other completed actions, the yiqHol is typically used to denote unfinished, repeated, and modal actions in the present, future, and past (see Grammar point 1B for details).
A. Forming the qal yiqvol Here’s the full yiqHol paradigm (note that, as in the qaHal, the name of the yiqHol conjugation is simply the 3ms form): Qal yiqVol Plural
K+& 9 '
Singular
they kill/will kill/would kill, etc.
! 1+ & 9 k
he kills/will kill/would kill, etc.
we kill/will kill/would kill, etc.
1
+&9 k
2mp
2ms
you kill/will kill/would kill, etc.
'+ & 9 k
2fp
you kill/will kill/would kill, etc.
+&9 1
3fs
she kills/will kill/would kill, etc.
you kill/will kill/would kill, etc.
! 1+ & 9 k
3ms
1
+&9 k
3fp
they kill/will kill/would kill, etc.
K+& 9 k
+&9 '
3mp
2fs
you kill/will kill/would kill, etc.
+&9
1cp
I kill/will kill/would kill, etc.
See Grammar point 1B for the full range of possible meanings of the yiqHol.
1cs
The qal yiqtol ˙
79
Points to note: All yiqHol forms have a prefix, including the 3ms (unlike the qaHal, in which the 3ms is unsuffixed). The characteristic vowels of the yiqHol are Fireq in the first syllable and Folem in the second. However, in the 1cs the Fireq in the first syllable is replaced by segol. The 3fs and 2ms forms are identical. (Don’t worry, context will distinguish them!) In contrast to the qaHal, the yiqHol has distinct 3mp and 3fp forms. The 3fp and 2fp forms are identical. (Again, context will distinguish them!) The 2fs, 3mp, 3fp, 2mp, and 2fp have a suffix as well as a prefix. The 2fs, 3mp, and 2mp suffix is vocalic, which means that the syllable structure changes, causing pretonic reduction. In the 2/3fp the tone is on the penultimate syllable. Remember to insert weak dagesh according to the normal rules if the root has one or more begadkefat letters. If the second or third radical is a guttural, the unsuffixed forms have pataF
instead of Folem in the second syllable, e.g.
3/ f '
+ f ' ‘he asks/will ask/used
to ask’, ‘he hears/will hear/used to hear’. If the second or third radical is a guttural, this is pointed with FaHef pataF instead of vocal shewa in the 2fs, 3mp, and 2mp, e.g. ask/will ask/used to ask’.
B. Uses of the yiqvol
'+ f k ‘you (fs)
404 See Reference grammar B2 for summary
Like the qaHal, the yiqHol (in all stems, not just in the qal) has a variety of uses. It can be useful to think of the primary function of the yiqHol as the expression of unfinished, repeated, and modal (see below for explanation) events in any tense. Within this broad definition, here are its most common uses: i. Future actions The yiqHol is commonly used to indicate planned or predicted future actions, equivalent to English ‘shall’, ‘will’, ‘going to’:
:'4 !¡= 5 :g fKV T+ / :/ Q # And the king of Ethiopia said, ‘I shall burn the city!’
ª:'4 !¡= 5 :g = ') '+¡'L T+ ] ! :/ Q # And the king said, ‘Woe is me, for you are going to burn the city!’
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This category includes the relative future, i.e. actions that in English are conveyed by ‘was/were going to’, e.g.:
ª:'4 !¡= 5 :g ' 'V T+ ] ! :/ Q # And the king said that he was going to burn the city. ii. Habitual actions in the past, present, or future The yiqHol is very frequently employed to indicate habitual actions (actions that are repeated on multiple occasions). This usage is often found in present tense contexts, usually in direct speech; this meaning may not seem too surprising, as an action that happens habitually can be thought of as a logical extension of an action that is happening at the present moment:
-'+ ) K 1 ' =L)+ ] ! # -') + ] ! # ‘But the kings and the queens steal vessels.’ (i.e. repeatedly) However, the yiqHol is also commonly used to indicate past habitual actions, corresponding to the English ‘used to’. This is one of the most striking, and potentially confusing, aspects of the yiqHol, because the concept of a conjugation that can express past actions as well as present and future ones can seem quite alien to us. However, it might help if you think of this usage as one element of the broader category of habitual actions, regardless of tense. You might also be wondering how you can tell on any given occasion whether a yiqHol has past, present, or future habitual meaning. Fortunately, the context will almost always make this clear: a yiqHol with past meaning will be set within a past context. Below is an example: you can tell that it’s past, clearly indicates this. because the introductory
'! ' # -L'¡+V -'+ V 1 ' 4 ! # +)' ! C 4 '! ' #
And there was a slave in the palace, and the slave used to steal vessels every day. iii. Modal actions in the past, present, or future The yiqHol is also frequently used to indicate various types of modal meanings. Modal is a term for a verb that, instead of just indicating pure action in the past, present, or future, also indicates something about whether the action is desirable, possible, impossible, etc. In English, modalities (the various types of modal meaning) are usually indicated by special modal verbs such as ‘can’, ‘could’, ‘would’, ‘should’, ‘might’, etc. In Biblical Hebrew the yiqHol serves exactly the same function. As in the case of habitual actions, yiqHols conveying modalities may have past, present, or future tense, and only the context will tell you which is the appropriate one. Similarly, only the
The qal yiqtol ˙
81
context will tell you which modality is correct; for example, the yiqHol in the sentence below could be translated in a variety of ways depending on the context (in addition, of course, to the other non-modal translations described above).
:'4 !¡= 5 :g I can/should/might/would burn the city. iv. Commands and requests The yiqHol can be used to denote commands and requests. These are frequently in the second person, as in the following example:
-L+f Kf: k Seek peace! But they may also be in the third person, in which case they correspond to the English ‘may he/she/they’ or ‘let him/her/them’. In such cases the yiqHol almost always appears before the subject, if there is one; this can help to distinguish it from other uses of the yiqHol, in which the subject may sometimes precede the verb.
-L+f -') + ] ! Kf: ' Let the kings seek peace! Finally, the yiqHol with command meaning may be in the first person plural, in which case it corresponds to the English ‘let’s’:
:'4 !¡= 5 :g 1 -') + ] ! K:/ Q # And the kings said, ‘Let’s burn the city!’ v. Other uses On rare occasions the yiqHol is used in other ways. For example, sometimes in dialogue it can be used to indicate an action in progress at the moment of speech, e.g. ‘Where are you going?’ This usage is typically restricted to questions. (Such present progressive actions are more typically conveyed by the active participle, to be discussed in Unit 20). Similarly, sometimes it appears in preterite contexts, where one would usually find the qaHal. Don’t worry too much about these less common usages; they’ll be pointed out as they occur in this course. It may seem that the yiqHol can be used in a bewildering array of completely different and incongruous contexts, and you might be wondering how you’ll ever be able to distinguish all of these different uses. Indeed, it can take a while to get used to the idea that a single conjugation commonly appears in past, present, future, modal, and command
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contexts. Take heart, however: the more Biblical Hebrew you read, the easier it will get; the context will nearly always make it quite clear which is the appropriate meaning, and with time you’ll become skilled in recognizing the correct interpretation(s) of a yiqHol in any given instance. C. Negating the yiqvol Like the qaHal, the yiqHol is negated by placing the particle
+ in front of it:
:'4 !¡= 5 :g + ‘I shall not burn the city!’
Exercises 1.
Locate and parse the qaHal and yiqHol verbs in the following biblical extracts.
'k + ) + -% + ' 1 (1 Kings 1:5) TY/ ' f C (Leviticus 20:14) L= K6: g ! :'4¡= 'k ) +¡ E (2 Samuel 12:27) - '] + (Exodus 20:15) 1 k ^! ' 1 $ C k : / - # (Judges 17:2) 52 V !¡! ' T+ /¡' V (1 Samuel 12:12) TY/ 'k f : G (Psalms 34:5) ! #! '¡= k !k # (1 Samuel 23:17) TY/ K V + ' (2 Chronicles 32:18) :'4 !¡= (Deuteronomy 9:9)
2
3
4
5
2
3
4 5
‘him’ (see Unit 17).
- '] ! :'4 ' 1 $
‘the city of water(s)’;
‘my ears’. ‘you (ms)’ (see Unit 16).
- '/ - '/ =
.
.1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 .10
Exercises
2.
83
Insert the correct yiqHol form of the root provided in brackets into each of the following biblical extracts. Translate each completed extract into English.
f C (2ms √ 5:g) __________ -!' = V : /¡= # 6
.1
(Joshua 11:6)
:/f ‘guard’; ‘keep’) __________ U'd %¡= # (Joshua 18:6) (2mp √ =V ‘write’) __________ -k C (3ms √ 5:g) __________ =L+ 4 (Psalms 46:10) f ' 1 (1cs √ )+) __________¡ 0a (2 Samuel 12:28) :'4 !¡= (3mp √ % $ ‘sacrifice’) __________ (Hosea 8:13) :g (Exodus 15:18) (3ms √ T+/) __________ ! #! ' (Psalms 78:7) (3mp √ %)f ‘forget’) __________ + # (1cp √ 5:g) __________¡0a (Judges 14:15) T=L (Ezekiel 23:27) L3¡ (2fs √ :)$ ‘remember’) __________ + 7
(Psalms 119:8) (1cs √
8
9
10
11
12
3.
.2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 .10
Translate the following paragraph into Biblical Hebrew. The king said to the queen, ‘Woe is me, because the kings and the queens seek war, whereas (lit.: and/but) I seek peace.’ But the queen said, ‘Also I shall seek war, for the kings and the queens have stolen the vessels which [I] love. And now you (ms) must capture the palaces, and also [you (ms)] must burn the cities, and also [you (ms)] must capture the people, and also [you (ms)] must rule in the lands.’ But the king said, ‘[I] do not want the lands, because [I] want only the vessels!’
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
‘their chariots’. ‘your statutes’. ‘you (mp)’ (see Unit 16). ‘chariots’. ‘lest’. ‘you (fs, direct object)’ (see Unit 17). ‘again’; ‘any more’.
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Cain and Abel (Genesis 4:2-11) This is the story of the first brothers, Adam and Eve’s sons Cain and Abel.
0 '9 Q # 4:3 ª!/ 3 ! '! 0 '9 # 0 8 !4 : + !¡' ! ' # 4:2 3f Q # K!¡- ' ! + ! # 4:4 ª! #!'+ !% 1/ !/ ! ': a / + L=% 1/¡+ # 0 '9¡+ # 4:5 ªL=% 1/¡+ # + !¡ + ! #! ' ! #! ' :/ Q # 4:9 ªK! : ! Q # + !¡ + 0 '9 -9 Q # 4:8 ª!4 f ª=' g 4 !/ :/ Q # 4:10 ª'k 4 ' + :/ Q # + ! ' 0 '9¡+ ª!/ !¡0 / !k :K: !k 4 # 4:11 13
14
Vocabulary (he) brought he (and) (he) looked upon (favourably) his offering (he) looked upon (favourably) (and) (he) rose up (and) (he) killed him where (=
! Q )
what (you ms) did/have done
13 14
Here: ‘upon’. Here: ‘against’.
' ! K! 3f Q # L=% 1/ !4 f
4:4
Abel Cain shepherd (lit.: herder of sheep and goats)
4:5
(he) was worker
-9 Q # K! : ! Q # ' !/ =' g 4
4:8
4:9 4:10
tiller (lit.: worker) of the soil (and) (he) brought offering
+ ! 0 '9 08 !4 :
4:2
! '! 3 !/ 3 Q # !% 1/
4:3
Unit Eight
Contents
$4 ! ‘The goat’
The qal wayyiqHol
'! ' # introducing temporal clauses 'V introducing causal and complement clauses The particle ! ^! #
The flood, part 1 (Genesis 6:6–7:19)
$4 ! :'4 !¡= =L)+ ] ! # -') + ] ! K6: g Q # !k f ] ! ': % '! ' # !V + ] ! # T+ ] ! K%: Q # ª7: K)+ /Q # +)' ! !¡= K V + Q # f C ¡= # 2K_!¡= K f ' -f # ! j !¡+ ! ^! # T+ ] ! : Q # ª=L1L= !¡= # -'X / E! -'+ V !¡= !+ ) $4 ! # ! j ! TL=C $4 +)' ! !¡= T+ ] ! 96 Q # ªK :f !k 4 =L)+ ] !¡+ # -') + ] !¡+ :/ Q # $4 'V -'+ V !¡= -k 1 + ') 'k 4 ' =': K=: ) Q # T+ ] + K%+ 2 Q # ª-= !+ ) ª=L8: !¡+ ) C -L+f '! ' #
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Vocabulary here: no English equivalent; often translated ‘and it came to pass’* after (and) (they) burned† (and) (they) captured† (and) (they) ruled† (and) (they) fled† (and) (he) saw† goat (is/was) eating qal qaHal 3cp √ (also: ‘perish’)
‘go missing’
': % K6: g Q # K V + Q # K)+ / Q # K%: Q # : Q # (p) -' O4 ,(f; g) $4 (fs) !+ ) K 96 Q # 'V !+ ) -= K%+ 2 Q #
(and) (he) visited† here: that‡ qal qaHal 3fs √
'! ' #
+) ‘eat’
them (and) (they) forgave†
(usually followed by the
+ ) K=: ) Q #
inseparable preposition (and) (they) made† Note: this root literally means ‘cut’ but is used idiomatically in conjunction with ‘covenant’ to mean ‘make a covenant’.
=': C
covenant * See Grammar point 2. † See Grammar point 1. ‡ See Grammar point 3.
=': C
1. The qal wayyiqtol ˙
87
Grammar points 1. The qal wayyiqVol You’ve already learned two of the basic Biblical Hebrew conjugations, the qaHal and yiqHol. However, there’s also a third conjugation called the wayyiqVol, which actually appears more frequently in biblical narrative than either the qaHal or yiqHol. You saw many examples of the wayyiqHol in the story above. It resembles the qaHal in that it’s used primarily to convey past actions, but its functions are quite different from those of the qaHal. Let’s first look at how to form the wayyiqHol, and then return to its uses. A. Forming the qal wayyiqvol Forming the wayyiqHol is easy; it’s composed of the following elements: Waw + pataF + strong dagesh + yiqHol, i.e.
+&9 Q #
The waw here resembles the conjunction waw, but differs in its pointing and the fact that it appears only as part of the wayyiqHol. This special form of waw has been given many labels by Biblical Hebrew grammarians. One of the most common is the wawconsecutive, which we’ll use in this course; however, it’s also called by other names such as the waw-retentive or (particularly in older grammars) waw-conversive. Here’s the complete paradigm of the wayyiqHol (which, like the qaHal and yiqHol, is named after the 3ms form of the paradigm). In order to identify the correct person, gender, and number of each wayyiqHol form, just look past the waw-consecutive and you’ll see the prefixes of the yiqHol. Don’t be confused by the fact that the wayyiqHol, which is used for preterite actions, is formed with the yiqHol, which is used for ongoing, repeated, present, future, and modal actions – just learn the forms, and then we’ll come back to the meaning. Note also that you’ve already met the wayyiqHol in previous units: the
:/ Q #
'! ' #
and are themselves 3ms qal wayyiqHols, but from very common forms a different type of root from those that we’ve studied so perhaps not immediately recognizable. There have also been quite a few wayyiqHols in the biblical extracts that we’ve been reading; you can identify them by the characteristic prefix of waw + pataF and strong dagesh.
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Unit Eight
Qal wayyiqVol Plural
K+& 9 Q #
Singular 3mp
(and) they killed
! 1+ & 9 k #
3fp
2mp
(and) we killed
3fs
+&9 k #
2ms
(and) you killed 2fp
(and) you killed
+&9 ^ #
+&9 k # (and) she killed
(and) you killed
! 1+ & 9 k #
3ms
(and) he killed
(and) they killed
K+& 9 k #
+&9 Q #
'+ & 9 k #
2fs
(and) you killed 1cp
+&9 #
1cs
(and) I killed
Points to note: Because the first consonant of the 1cs is a guttural, it can’t double when prefixed by the waw-consecutive; instead, it undergoes compensatory lengthening and is pointed with qameG. Nothing can come between the waw-consecutive and the rest of the verb. Roots with a guttural deviate from the above paradigm just as they do in the ‘(and) he heard’. yiqHol, e.g.
3/ f Q #
F
rom now on when new qal strong roots in the qal qaHal, yiqHol, or wayyiqHol appear in the stories and biblical texts, they won’t be translated in the vocabulary lists but instead will be parsed, which will allow you to work out the correct meaning in the context. Verbs from stems and root classes that we haven’t yet studied will continue to be translated until they’ve been examined in detail.
B. Uses of the wayyiqvol
405 See Reference grammar B3 for summary
i. Preterite actions The wayyiqHol is generally more straightforward in meaning than the qaHal or yiqHol: it’s typically used to convey sequences of preterite actions, most commonly in narrative (but also in dialogue). Think of it as the conjugation whose main job is to advance
1. The qal wayyiqtol ˙
89
plotlines set in the past: biblical stories (whether narrative or incidents recounted by characters) are typically composed of a chain of wayyiqHols, each one representing a link in the whole story; by contrast, qaHals and yiqHols are used when the narrator or speaker wants to break away from the narrative temporarily in order to provide some relevant information that doesn’t actually progress the main storyline. The literal meaning of the wayyiqHol, ‘and then’, may also help to make its function clear. Biblical Hebrew narrative is often composed of long chains of wayyiqHols, which can continue indefinitely until something interrupts them (see point C below for examples of the kinds of things that may cause interruptions). The waw-consecutive may be translated in a variety of ways depending on what makes the most sense in the context, e.g. ‘then’, ‘so’, ‘and then’, ‘and’, ‘and so’. However, an overly literal translation of such sequences would be full of ‘and then he said . . . and then he went . . . and then he wrote . . . and then they said . . .’, which sounds awkward in English. Therefore, it’s often up to the translator to decide how to interpret these sequences; you might want to vary it a bit, leaving out the ‘and then’ unless the context seems to require it in English. Note that because nothing can separate the waw-consecutive from the rest of the verb, the wayyiqHol always precedes its subject. Similarly, the wayyiqHol cannot be negated; in order to convey a negative preterite action, the qaHal must be used instead (see point C below). Note also that individual wayyiqHol verbs within a sequence need not have the same subject; rather, each one can have a separate subject, without causing the chain to be interrupted. ii. Other types of past action The wayyiqHol can also be used to indicate other types of past action, e.g. present perfect and pluperfect. Don’t worry about these less common uses; the context will usually make clear to you if one of these meanings is intended. C. Differences in usage between qaval and wayyiqvol You may now be wondering what the difference is between the qaHal and wayyiqHol – after all, both are used in preterite contexts, so why is one used sometimes and the other used other times? There are various explanations for this that you can examine in detail at a more advanced level. For now, it may be most helpful to think of the wayyiqHol as the conjugation that serves to advance a storyline, while the qaHal is used in clauses containing interruptions or deviations from this storyline. Such interruptions include the following:
+
negative clauses/sentences introduced by contrast clauses (clauses giving a contrast to what was said previously) introduced by the conjunction waw with the meaning of ‘but’
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background information about events that had happened before the time of the main storyline (i.e. pluperfects) adverbs (words telling you when, where, or how something happened, e.g. ‘there’) direct speech embedded within the narrative (though the wayyiqHol may be used in a ‘mini-narrative’ sequence found inside direct speech).
-f
Let’s look at a few examples. In the following sequence, the wayyiqHol is used in the first case, while the qaHal is used in the second case because the intervening adverb interrupts the narrative chain and ‘blocks’ another wayyiqHol.
-f
K f ' -f # ! j !¡+ !V + ] ! # T+ ] ! K%: Q # The king and the queen fled to the field, and there they lived. In the next example, the first two wayyiqHols advance the storyline, but are interrupted by the direct speech of the king; the narrative then resumes with another sequence of wayyiqHols.
-') + ] !¡+ :/ Q # +)' ! !¡= T+ ] ! 96 Q # -'+ V !¡= -k 1 + ') 'k 4 ' !k 4 =L)+ ] !¡+ # '! ' # =': K=: ) Q # T+ ] + K%+ 2 Q # ª-= !+ ) $4 'V ª=L8: !¡+ ) C -L+f So the king visited the palace and said to the kings and queens, ‘Now I know that you did not steal the vessels, because a goat has eaten them’. Then they forgave the king and made a covenant, and there was peace in all of the lands. In the next example, the initial wayyiqHol is interrupted by a sequence that doesn’t advance the narrative but rather describes what is going on at the same time as the king’s sequential action of seeing. Note that the qaHal at the end of the extract is
:f
(meaning ‘which’) and provides background information (i.e. has preceded by a pluperfect sense); the wayyiqHol could not be used in such a context.
!+ ) $4 ! # ! j ! TL=C $4 ! ^! # T+ ] ! : Q # ªK :f -'+ V !¡= And the king looked, and there was a goat in the middle of the field, and the goat was eating the vessels which had gone missing.
3.
'V introducing causal and complement clauses
91
Finally, in the next example the qaHal must be used because it’s preceded by the negative particle, and therefore the wayyiqHol would be impossible.
-'+ V ! = K1 1 + ‘We did not steal the vessels!’
2.
'! ' # introducing temporal clauses
'! ' #, which you’ve already encountered with the meaning ‘and he was’ or ‘and there was’, is the 3ms wayyiqHol form of the root !'!, meaning ‘be’. This root is weak and so conjugates differently from the verbs we’ve studied so far. We won’t examine it thoroughly until Unit 35, but for now it’s useful to learn the form because it’s so common. In addition to its uses that you’ve seen in previous units, it’s commonly found at the beginning of a new section of biblical narrative, immediately preceding a temporal clause (a phrase giving information about when something happens, e.g. ‘after the banquet’, ‘before the war’; temporal means ‘time-related’). In many English in this type of setting is translated as ‘and it came to pass’. Bible translations, However, it doesn’t really have a precise English equivalent and therefore can be left untranslated or simply translated as ‘and’. The narrative then continues with one or more wayyiqHols. You saw an example of this in the story:
'! ' #
=L)+ ] ! # -') + ] ! K6: g Q # !k f ] ! ': % '! ' # f C :'4 !¡= And after the banquet, the kings and queens burned the city.
'V introducing causal and complement clauses In previous units you’ve encountered the particle 'V meaning ‘because’. When 'V has this meaning it’s said to be introducing a causal clause, which is, as the name suggests, a clause (part of a sentence) that indicates the cause of something. However, 'V also 3.
has several other meanings. The most common of these is following verbs of speaking and perception (verbs describing speech or mental and emotional states such as ‘know’, follows such verbs, it usually has the meaning ‘hope’, ‘say’, ‘tell’, and ‘fear’). When appears in this type of of ‘that’, as in ‘I know that he stole the vessels’. When context, it’s said to be introducing a complement clause (also called content clause or object clause). You may be wondering how it’s possible to decide which meaning is following a verb of speaking has on any given occasion. It’s usually quite easy: if or perception, translate it as ‘that’; otherwise, it’s most likely introducing a causal
'V
'V
'V
'V
92
Unit Eight
clause. Moreover, if you try one translation and it doesn’t seem to make sense, then the other one is probably correct. You can see this in the following extract from the : the first follows a verb of story, which contains examples of both uses of
'k 4 '
'V
'V
perception, ‘I know’, and therefore can be assumed to mean ‘that’, while the second one doesn’t, and therefore more likely means ‘because’.
$4 'V -'+ V !¡= -k 1 + ') 'k 4 ' !k 4 ª-= !+ ) ‘Now I know that you did not steal the vessels, because a goat has eaten them.’
'V can also mean ‘but rather’ and ‘indeed’; these usages will be pointed out as they appear and discussed in later units. As with many other aspects of Biblical Hebrew grammar, context will usually determine which is the right meaning, and as you gain familiarity with the language, it will become easier and easier to distinguish between the various uses.
! ^! # In the story above the particle ! ^! appeared prefixed by the conjunction waw, as ! ^! #. This usage is very common in biblical narrative. It generally appears following a verb of sight or perception, frequently : Q # ‘and he looked/saw’. As with other uses of the particle, translation can be a challenge. A phrase such as ! ^! # : Q # 4. The particle
may be translated in a variety of ways conveying the notion of noteworthiness, e.g. ‘and what should he see but . . .’, ‘and he saw to his surprise’, ‘and he was astonished to see’, or more subtly, ‘and he looked, and there was . . .’ or simply ‘and he saw’ (in addition to the traditional translation, ‘and he looked, and behold . . .’). Some of these possibilities are illustrated in the following excerpt from the story:
! j ! TL=C $4 ! ^! # T+ ] ! : Q # And And And And And
the king saw to his surprise that there was a goat in the middle of the field! the king suddenly saw a goat in the middle of the field! the king looked, and there was a goat in the middle of the field! what did the king see but a goat in the middle of the field! the king looked, and behold, there was a goat in the middle of the field!
! ^! #
may appear in contexts not following a verb of sight or perception. In addition, In such cases the particle still seems to indicate that the speaker or writer saw something
Exercises
93
surprising, dramatic, shocking, or otherwise noteworthy, even though there’s no actual verb indicating this. Therefore, the same types of translations are possible in such cases as well. This is illustrated in the following example from the story in Unit 4:
-% + +) 2K_! ! ^! # 0% + i !¡+ 2K_! Q # ': 6K f K :g K And the horse came to the table, and suddenly the horse was eating bread and meat and honey and fruit!
Exercises 1.
Locate and parse the wayyiqHols in the following biblical extracts. Translate each extract into English.
f C -= K6: g Q # C k) # (Jeremiah 32:10) :6 _ V¡= V+ ^ # (Deuteronomy 2:34) #': 4¡+ ' 1f K%: Q # (1 Kings 2:39) -' 4¡ C TY/ Q # (Genesis 36:32) -L # (1 Kings 21:8) -': 6 2 k) k :V $ Q # (Genesis 8:1) -'!Y K:/ f Q # (Psalms 59:1) = 'C !¡= !Y ! #! '¡= K%V f Q # (1 Samuel 12:9) -!' (Joshua 7:25)
1
2
3
1 2 3
‘his cities’ (see Unit 15). ‘two’ (see Unit 18). ‘their God’ (see Unit 15).
.1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9
94
2.
Unit Eight
Rewrite the following phrases and sentences, adding pointing and changing the qaHal verbs into wayyiqHols whenever possible in order to create a sequential past narrative. Remember not to use the wayyiqHol after particles such as and
:f .
+, 'V ,
!/%+/! ':% '!'# +)'! :
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