Physiological Profile of an Elite Freestyle Wrestler

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Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 2002, 16(2), 308–315 q 2002 National Strength & Conditioning Association

Case Study

Physiological Profile of an Elite Freestyle Wrestler Preparing for Competition: A Case Study ALAN C. UTTER, HAROLD S. O’BRYANT, G. GREGORY HAFF, AND GREGORY A. TRONE Departments of Health, Leisure, and Exercise Science, Appalachian State University, Boone, North Carolina 28608.

ABSTRACT The purpose of the present investigation was to describe the physiological changes of a nationally ranked older elite freestyle wrestler during a 7-month observation period as he prepared for the 2000 Olympic freestyle wrestling trials. A 33-year-old male wrestler was evaluated 3 times during the study for measurements of body composition, resting energy expenditure, maximal oxygen consumption, isometric strength, anaerobic power and capacity, nutritional intake, and various serum plasma constituents. Body weight decreased by 1 kg, which consisted of fat-free mass (FFM), whereas body fat remained stable at 5.8%. Muscular strength and aerobic power were maintained throughout the study. Measures of anaerobic work capacity tended to be higher and blood lactate lower as the subject progressed throughout the investigation. All serum plasma constituents were within clinically normal ranges and remained relatively stable. Despite a small loss of FFM, the subject was able to maintain muscular strength and aerobic fitness while concomitantly enhancing anaerobic capacity and power capabilities throughout the study period as he prepared for the 2000 Olympic freestyle wrestling trials.

Key Words: weight loss, muscular strength, anaerobic power Reference Data: Utter. A.C., H.S. O’Bryant, G.G. Haff, and G.A. Trone. Physiological profile of an elite freestyle wrestler preparing for competition: a case study. J. Strength Cond. Res. 16(2):308–315. 2002.

Introduction

F

reestyle (FS) wrestling is best described as a combative, high-intensity sport in which the wrestler attempts to maintain superior psychological and physical control over an opponent. FS wrestling is similar in discipline to both scholastic and collegiate programs contested in the United States but with different scoring rules and strategies. As of 1998, the match structure of international FS wrestling changed from a continuous 5-minute period to two 3-minute periods with a 30-second rest between periods. 308

The physiologic demands of a FS wrestling match taxes both aerobic and anaerobic energy systems. The anaerobic system provides the short, quick, and explosive all-out burst of maximal power and strength, whereas the aerobic system will contribute to sustained endurance effort throughout match duration, recovery periods, and sudden-death overtime. Considering that a FS wrestling match may last as long as 9 minutes, the development of well-conditioned physiologic capacities at both the central and peripheral level are critical for success. Previous studies have profiled the physiological requirements of FS wrestling (4, 15, 17, 18). However, the last and only case study available on an elite FS wrestler preparing for competition was completed some 20 years ago (21). In that investigation a 21-year-old man was studied for 2 months as he trained for the 1981 Maccabiah Games trials and the 1981 National Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) wrestling tournament trials. Measurements of body composition, anthropometry, muscular strength, serum plasma constituents, and maximal aerobic power were made 53, 31, and 3 days before the AAU tournament. Results revealed that despite a loss of lean and fat tissue (8% of body weight), maximal aerobic capacity (67 ml·kg21·min21) and muscular strength were maintained in the FS wrestler. Considering the paucity of case studies available on older elite FS wrestlers, the change in FS wrestling match structure during 1998, and the amount of time that has elapsed since the last case study of an elite FS wrestler, i.e., ;20 years (21), the current case study was undertaken. The purpose of the present investigation was to describe the physiological changes of a nationally ranked elite FS wrestler during a 7-month observation period as he prepared for the 2000 Olympic freestyle wrestling trials. Compared with the previously published case study (21), the current subject was considerably older (33 vs. 21 years) and was studied for a longer period of time (7 vs. 2 months). In addition, the current subject was 4.6 years older than

Profile of an Elite Freestyle Wrestler

the average FS wrestling Olympic team member from the year 2000 Olympics (average age: 28.4 6 1.5 years), and thus presents novel data on an older elite FS wrestler. The subject was evaluated 3 times during the 7month period for measurements of body composition, resting energy expenditure, maximal oxygen consumption, isometric strength, anaerobic power and capacity, nutritional intake, and various serum plasma constituents. These specific variables were chosen because they comprise the overall profile of a successful wrestler from both a performance and health perspective (4, 9, 14, 15, 17, 18).

Methods A 33-year-old Caucasian male in good physical condition was studied for 7 months (Oct. 29, 1999 to May 19, 2000). The nature and purpose of the study and the risks involved were explained in both written and verbal form before obtaining his informed consent to participate. The experimental protocol was approved by the Human Subjects Review Board at Appalachian State University. Throughout the 7-month period the subject was training to compete in the U.S. National freestyle wrestling tournament, which was held on April 21–22, 2000 (qualifying event for the 2000 Olympic freestyle wrestling trials) and the 2000 Olympic freestyle wrestling trials held on June 22–24, 2000. The subject represents an older elite freestyle wrestler who had earned an alternate berth for the 1996 Olympic freestyle wrestling team and has consistently been ranked in the top 3 in the United Sates at the 69-kg weight class throughout the past 5 years. Testing Schedule The subject was evaluated 3 times during the 7-month period. The 3 testing dates were as follows: October 29–30, 1999 (PRE), March 10–11, 2000 (MID), and May 19–20, 2000 (PEAK). The testing dates were chosen to detect physiological changes that may occur in an elite freestyle wrestler preparing for the 2000 Olympic trials. The PRE trial represents the baseline time point from which all comparisons are made. The last testing date was 4 weeks before the 2000 Olympic freestyle wrestling trials, and represents the time point at which the subject was thought to be in peak physical condition. At each testing date the subject was euhydrated and not ‘‘cutting weight’’ in preparation for competition, nor was the subject supplementing with creatine. During the 7-month period the subject ingested creatine for a 30-day period, i.e., March 31–April 30, 2000. During this supplementation period the subject consumed 0.3 g of creatine·kg body mass21·d21 for 5 days and 0.03 g of creatine·kg body mass21·d21 for the remaining 25 days. In the 5 months leading up to the PRE trial the subject had been engaging in moderate training (1–2 wrestling sessions·week 21 and 1–2 strength training sessions·week21). Therefore, the sub-

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ject was not entirely untrained when assessed during the PRE trial testing session. The typical training schedule for the subject throughout the 7-month observation period consisted of 5 to 6 wrestling training sessions per week, each with a duration of approximately 2 hours. A typical wrestling session included completing wrestling drills, live scrimmaging, and high-intensity anaerobic conditioning. In addition to the wrestling sessions, the subject underwent strength training sessions 3– 4·week21 for 45–60 minutes under the supervision of a university strength coach that followed a classic periodized protocol. A typical strength training session included various dynamic, large muscle mass, multijoint exercises such as overhead squats, drop squats, Romanian deadlifts, pull–power cleans, pull-ups, and upper- and lower-body plyometric exercises. Relative to the 5-month period in which the subject was not intensively training, the strength training sessions during the 7-month observation period were typically of lower volume and higher intensity with varying sets: 3–5; repetitions: 3–10; and intensity: 65–95% repetition maximum. For all laboratory assessments the subject was required to be in a fasted state (.3 hours), normally hydrated, no alcohol within 12 hours, no exercise within 6 hours. On each of the 3 testing dates, measurements of anthropometry, body composition, resting metabolism, maximal oxygen consumption ˙ O2max), and serum complete blood counts (CBC) (V with hemoglobin and hematocrit and a multichemisty (multichem) panel were made on 1 day at 1600 hours, and isometric strength, anaerobic power, anaerobic capacity, and plasma lactate concentrations on the next day at 0900 hours. Body Composition Analysis On each of the 4 testing dates the subject’s height, body mass, and body composition were evaluated by hydrostatic weighing. Body density was also determined by hydrostatic weighing. During hydrostatic weighing, the subject was asked to expel as much air as possible from his lungs during complete submersion. After several trials, the highest underwater weight that could be repeated by the subject was recorded, with percent fat calculated by the equations of Brozek et al. (2). Residual volume was measured by ˙ max the nitrogen washout procedure using the V 229LV metabolic cart from the SensorMedics Corporation (Yorba Linda, CA). Fat mass (body weight 3 percent fat) and fat-free mass (body weight 2 fat weight) were calculated. Isometric Strength Assessment Force-time dependent characteristics of isometric muscle actions were evaluated by the methods used by Haff et al. (6). The test-retest reliability of these strength measures has been previously reported (r 5

310 Utter, O’Bryant, Haff, and Trone

0.92 to 0.93, p , 0.05) (6). A mid-thigh clean pull exercise was performed on a custom-built isometric rack (Sorinex Inc., Irmo, SC) that allowed the bar to be fixed at any desired height above the floor using a combination of pins and hydraulic jacks. The isometric rack was placed over a 61 3 121.9 cm AMTI forceplate (Advanced Mechanical Technologies, Newton, MA), which is sampled at a rate of 500 Hz. A specifically written computer software program was used to analyze the force-time data files. Several variables from the vertical (Fz) were calculated from ground reaction force data over the entire sampling period. Before each testing session, the subject completed a warm-up that consisted of static stretches and 5 midthigh clean pulls with approximately 30–50% of his current 1 repetition maximum (1RM) mid-thigh clean pull. The subject completed 2 isometric clean pulls from mid-thigh on each testing session throughout the season. This movement was selected because it incorporates the recruitment of the vastus lateralis, which has been shown to be a representative muscle for the study of wrestling performance (10, 11). Bar height was measured as used to reproduce the same position on each trial. The subject was then strapped to the bar using standard lifting straps and athletic tape. The subject was instructed to pull as fast and hard as possible. When the primary concern of the testing is to record maximal forces and rates of force development, it has been suggested that ‘‘hard’’ and ‘‘fast’’ instructions produce optimal results (1). Subject was given a 2-minute rest period between each trial. During the 2minute recovery period the subject was instructed to sit in a chair and relax. No activity was allowed during the recovery period. Force-time curves were developed and analyzed during the isometric mid-thigh clean pull for each subject. The variables analyzed were isometric rate of force development (IRFD), isometric peak force (IPF), relative isometric peak force (RIPF) (IPF·kg of body weight21), time to reach isometric peak force (TIPF), isometric force at first peak of the force-time curve (IPKF1), and time to reach isometric force at first peak of the force-time curve (TIPKF1). Anaerobic Power Anaerobic power was determined by the standing vertical jump test (19). A base height is determined by having the subject stand upright below a Vertec vertical jump testing device with a measurement resolution of 0.5 in. (1.24 cm) (Sports Imports, Columbus, OH), with both feet flat on the floor. The distance to the fingertip with the jumping arm extended forward was then measured. The subject was then instructed to jump straight up as high as possible, using a natural counter-type movement, for 1 practice followed by 3 trials. By measuring the maximal height reached by the subject’s fingertip as it hit the Vertec, and taking

the difference between base height and the best height of the 3 trials, the subject’s maximal vertical jump was obtained. The conversions of vertical jump height into peak power (PP), average power (AP), and estimated escape velocity (EV) were completed by utilizing the formulas of Johnson and Bahamonde (12). Anaerobic Capacity Power and measures of high-intensity exercise were assessed on a Monark cycle ergometer fitted with electromagnetic switches and interfaced with an 8-bit microprocessor using specifically designed software (16). Power and work samples were determined each halfpedal revolution with a sample resolution of 4 milliseconds. The subject was accustomed to riding a stationary cycle. The test-retest reliability for work and power variables have been consistently r . 0.90 for this system in our laboratory. The subjects performed fifteen 5-second rides with a 1-minute rest period between rides. Resistance for the test was preloaded at 0.98 N·body mass21. The subject was encouraged to make an all-out effort on each ride. This cycle ergometer test protocol was chosen because of its similarity to sports in which intermittent activity is common, such as freestyle wrestling. The cycle tests were analyzed for PP, which typically occurs on the first or second ride; AP over the 15 rides; and total work (TW) over the 15 rides. Lactate measurements were determined 5 minutes before the cycle rides, at rest; after rides 3, 6, 9, 12, 15; and 2 and 5 minutes after the same rides. Lactate was measured using the YSI 2300 Stat Plus lactate analyzer (YSI Incorporated, Yellow Springs, OH). Arterialized venous blood samples were obtained using a sterile lancet applied to a prewarmed and cleaned finger. Lactate was measured as an index of effort, glycolytic energy production activation, and intensity of exercise. Maximal Oxygen Consumption ˙ O2max was determined using a graded maximal V treadmill protocol (3). Oxygen uptake and ventilation were measured using a MedGraphics CPX metabolic system (MedGraphics Corporation, St. Paul, MN). Analyzers were calibrated using gasses provided by MedGraphics: (a) calibration gas: 5% CO2, 12% O2, balance N2; and (b) reference gas 21% O2, balance N2. The standard specification of error for the reference and calibration gas is 60.10% (MedGraphics). Maximal heart rate was measured using the Quinton Q4000 Stress Test System, Quinton Instrument Co., Seattle, WA). A 12-lead electrocardiogram (EKG) and blood pressure were obtained at rest after the subject had been lying supine quietly for 5 minutes. Resting Metabolic Rate (RMR) Measurement RMR was measured by indirect calorimetry using the MedGraphics CPX Express metabolic system. Gases were calibrated before each RMR test. Oxygen con-

Profile of an Elite Freestyle Wrestler

Table 1. Body composition values during the study period.

Variable

PRE MID PEAK (Oct. 29–30) (March 10–11)(May 19–20)

Height, cm Weight, kg Hydrostatic weighing, % fat Fat mass, kg Fat-free mass, kg Residual lung volume, L (BTPS)*

176.5 75.4

176.5 74.4

176.5 74.4

5.5 4.3 71.1

6.1 4.5 69.8

5.7 4.3 70.1

1.4

1.4

1.4

* BTPS 5 body temperature pressure saturated.

sumption and carbon dioxide production were then measured to determine the respiratory quotient. Energy expenditure was calculated using the de Weir equation (5). Nutritional Assessment The subject was instructed on how to accurately record everything he had to eat or drink for 3 consecutive days. Nutrient intake from the 3-day food records was assessed using the computerized dietary analysis system, Food Processor Plus, version 6.0 (ESHA Research, Salem, OR) (13). Biochemical Measurements Routine CBCs with hemoglobin and hematocrit and a multichem panel were performed using a Coulter STKS instrument (Coulter Electronics, Hialeah, FL) by our clinical hematology laboratory staff (Lab Corp., Burlington, NC).

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Results Body composition values are shown in Table 1. At the first observation period (PRE) the subject weighed 75.4 kg, 5.5% of which was body fat. At the PEAK measurement period body weight had decreased to 74.4 kg, which represented a 1-kg decline in fat-free mass (FFM), whereas percent body fat remained unchanged. Throughout the study, energy intake averaged 13.31 MJ·d21 (3,192 kcal·d21), with energy as carbohydrate, fat, and protein measured at 57, 22, and 21%, respectively. Cardiovascular evaluation indicated a normal EKG with sinus bradycardia. Cardiorespiratory measurements are shown in Table 2. Resting heart rate declined from 59 to 49 b·min21 from PRE to PEAK, whereas resting blood pressure remained relatively ˙ O2max (ml·kg21·min21) remained stable unchanged. V from the PRE to PEAK assessment; however, the subject increased his treadmill performance time by 1 minute from the first to the last test. There was a small decrease (2%) in resting metabolic rate from the PRE to PEAK assessment. Selected strength and power measures are shown in Table 3; and AP, TW, and blood lactate over the fifteen 5-second cycle rides are shown in Figures 1, 2, and 3, respectively. PP, AP, and estimated EV as determined from the vertical jump did not change throughout the investigation (Table 3). IRFD, IPF, RIPF (IPF·kg of body weight21), TIPF, IPKF1, and TIPKF1 are shown in Table 3. There was a small increase in IPF and RIPF from the PRE to PEAK assessment. There was a trend for both AP and TW to be higher at the MID and PEAK assessments relative to the PRE for the fifteen 5-second cycle rides (Figures 1 and 2).

Table 2. Resting and exercise cardiorespiratory measurements during the study period. PRE (Oct. 29–30)

MID (March 10–11)

PEAK (May 19–20)

Rest HR, beats·min21 Systolic blood pressure, mm Hg Diastolic blood pressure, mm Hg Resting metabolic rate, kcal·day21 R VE, L·min21

59 114 74 1,976 0.83 8.5

50 114 70 2,043 0.86 7.6

49 108 70 1,937 0.81 6.9

Exercise V˙Omax, ml·kg21·min21 HRmax, beats·min21 VEmax, L·min21 Rmax RRmax, breaths·min21 Treadmill performance time, min

55 176 206 1.24 84.2 12.7

57.1 174 173 1.25 72.1 13.45

55.8 178 186 1.29 75.4 13.7

Variable*

* HR 5 heart rate; V˙O2max 5 maximal oxygen consumption; VE 5 minute ventilation; RRmax 5 maximal respiratory rate; VEmax 5 maximum minute ventilation.

312 Utter, O’Bryant, Haff, and Trone Table 3. Selected strength and power measurements during the study period.

Variable Vertical jump Peak power, W Average power, W Escape velocity, m·s21 Isometric strength Isometric rate of force development, N·s21 Isometric peak force, N Relative isometric peak force, N·kg21 Time to isometric peak force, ms Isometric force at first peak of the forcetime curve, N Time to reach isometric force at first peak of the force-time curve, ms

PRE (Oct. 29–30)

MID (March 10–11)

PEAK (May 19–20)

5,304 2,817 3.77

5,125 2,723 3.77

5,280 2,804 3.77

42,926 3,970 52.1 2,180

27,981 3,896 52 2,226

39,136 4,084 53.9 1,944

2,405

2,410

2,170

92

140

100

Figure 3. Blood lactate at various time points throughout the 15 cycle rides at each of the 3 testing dates. Figure 1. Average peak power outputs over the 15 cycle rides at each of the 3 testing dates.

The profiles of all plasma constituents were in the clinical normal range. Both hemoglobin and red blood cell count were in the low normal range, 12.9 g·dL21 and 3.99 3 1026 mL at the PRE assessment, but returned to normal at the MID and PEAK. White blood cell count was also in the low normal range (3.7 3 1023 mL) at the PRE assessment, but returned to normal at the MID and PEAK. Creatinine was in the high normal range throughout the entire investigation (1.3– 1.6 mg·dL21) (normal range 0.5–1.5 mg·dL21).

Discussion Figure 2. Average total work over the 15 cycle rides at each of the 3 testing dates.

PP (978, 958, and 965 W) for the fifteen 5-second cycle rides remained constant throughout the study period, whereas fatigue rate tended to decrease (101.8, 78.4, and 67.7 W·s21). Blood lactate tended to be lower higher at the MID and PEAK assessments relative to the PRE for the fifteen 5-second cycle rides (Figures 3).

The purpose of this study was to assess the physiological characteristics of an older elite FS wrestler during a 7-month period as he prepared for the 2000 Olympic freestyle wrestling trials. The subject displayed a high level of wrestling-specific fitness values for muscular strength, anaerobic power and capacity, and aerobic conditioning despite a small decrement (1 kg) in FFM. Throughout the investigation there was 1-kg reduction in body weight that consisted of FFM, as per-

Profile of an Elite Freestyle Wrestler

cent body fat remained stable. The percent body fat of the subject averaged 5.7% over the study period and is consistent with the 1997 U.S. freestyle wrestling world team, which averaged 6.5%, excluding heavyweight (4). In the week preceding the Olympic trials the subject lost an additional 4.0 kg or 5.8% of body weight primarily through acute dehydration and caloric restriction (personal communication with subject; data not presented). The magnitude of acute dehydration reported in the present study is consistent with the case study of Widerman and Hagan (21), which reported a 2.7 kg or 5.7% reduction in body weight as a result of rapid weight loss. The present study did not attempt to evaluate decrements in wrestling-specific performance measures after acute dehydration, especially during the week leading up to competition. However, it should be mentioned that acute dehydration has been linked to decreases in physiological function of wrestlers (10). The 1-kg reduction in FFM reported in the present investigation is slightly less that the 2.2-kg reduction in FFM reported in the case study by Widerman and Hagan (21). However, the last testing date in the previous case study (21) was 3 days before competition, whereas in the present study the last testing date was 4 weeks before competition. It is interesting to note that in the report by Widerman and Hagan (21), when their subject was tested at 4 weeks before competition, FFM was 1 kg lower than baseline, which parallels the present findings. The dietary intake of the subject in the present study was composed of 57% carbohydrate, 22% fat, and 21% protein with a reported daily energy intake of 3,192 kcal·d21. The macronutrient composition reported in the present study is consistent with the previous case study (21), and to our knowledge these 2 reports represent the only studies available on the dietary practices of elite FS wrestlers. RMR decreased from 1,976 kcal·d21 during the PRE assessment to 1,937 kcal·d21 at the PEAK assessment. The small decrease (2%) in RMR cannot be explained by a loss of FFM, because at the MID testing date FFM had decreased by 1.3 kg and RMR had increased to 2,046 kcal·d21. Although there are currently no RMR data available on elite FS wrestlers to contrast, the RMR values reported in the present study are consistent with those of collegiate wrestlers studied throughout the competitive season (1,644–2,030 kcal·d21) (14). In summary, the present subject’s diet consumption, which was high in carbohydrates, allowed for continued training by theoretically maintaining muscle glycogen stores and minimizing losses in both FFM and RMR. Aerobic power for the subject tested in the present study was on average 56 ml·kg21·min21 and is consistent with the 54.6 ml·kg21·min21average of the 1997 U.S. freestyle wrestling world team (4). As in the case study presented by Widerman and Hagan (21), the

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subject in the present study was able to maintain a high level of cardiovascular fitness throughout the 7month observation period. Even though match duration has digressed from 9 minutes in the mid 1970s to 6 minutes at present day, a high aerobic capacity continues to be an important physiologic characteristic of elite FS wrestlers today as it was in the 1970s. Whether high aerobic power and cardiovascular endurance are critical for either match success or allow for high-intensity training throughout the months leading up to competition is a question that has yet to be clearly answered. PP and AP estimated from the vertical jump remained stable throughout the investigation. The subject in the present study averaged 59.3 cm in the vertical jump. This value is consistent with the1997 U.S. freestyle wrestling world team, which averaged 60 cm (4). The vertical jump test is an easy test to administer, highly reproducible, and is relatively sport specific. Despite a 1-kg decrement in FFM, the subject in the present study was also able to maintain values for all measures of isometric strength. IRFD may be an important performance variable to study within wrestlers because explosive exercises (such as those practiced by the subject in the present study) tend to enhance the ability to generate high IRFD (7, 8, 22). In the present investigation the subject was able to maintain IRFD from the PRE to PEAK testing date. The maintenance of muscular strength despite a loss of FFM is consistent with the previous case study of an elite FS wrestler (21) and also collegiate wrestlers studied throughout the competitive season (20). The subject in the present study demonstrated a reduction in IRFD at the MID testing date, and the reason for this decrement at present remains unclear. To our knowledge, there has been just 1 study available examining IRFD in elite FS wrestlers. In that study Hakkinen et al. (7) evaluated the neuromuscular, anaerobic, and aerobic performance characteristics of elite Finnish wrestlers. The average IRFD of the subject in the present study (excluding the MID testing date) was 41,031 N·s21, and as expected is considerably higher than that reported in a previous study on Division 1 collegiate wrestlers, who averaged 17,815 N·s21 (20), and also higher than the 31,065 N·s21 achieved by the Finnish wrestlers (7). The anaerobic capacity cycle ergometry protocol used in the present study placed considerable stress upon both the phosphagen system and fast glycolysis, and the 5-second intervals of maximal effort are similar to the high-intensity, short-duration, quick bursts of power displayed during a wrestling match. An interesting finding of the present investigation is that both AP and TW tended to be higher and blood lactate lower at the MID and PEAK assessments relative to the PRE for the fifteen 5-second cycle rides (Figures 1– 3). From this finding we can speculate that with train-

314 Utter, O’Bryant, Haff, and Trone

ing over the 7-month period, despite a loss of FFM, enhanced power and work capabilities may be the result of enhanced ATP resynthesis, replenishment of phosocreatine stores, augmented acid-buffering capacity to delay fatigue, and the restoration of glycolytic properties. These findings are strengthened by the fact that fatigue rate (i.e., the rate at which power output decreased postpeak) also improved throughout the investigation (PRE 5 2101.7 to PEAK 5 2 67.7 W·s21). A low fatigue rate means that the athlete can maintain a high percentage of his peak power throughout the duration of the test, without fatiguing as quickly. Future studies of elite FS wrestlers might examine the muscle-buffering capacity before and after weeks of wrestling-specific training using indirect measures of blood bicarbonate to determine the extent to which peripheral and central fitness contribute to training adaptations despite a loss of FFM. The results of blood tests did not show any signs of severe caloric restriction, i.e., increased protein catabolism or electrolyte imbalance. Lipid profile results were in accordance with the notion that exercise combined with a high carbohydrate diet can have a positive influence on these coronary heart disease risk factors. In addition, average hematocrit, hemoglobin, and plasma protein values at 38.6%, 13.1 g·dL21, and 6.8 g·dL21, respectively, suggest that the athlete was not dehydrated during any of the testing dates. One potential limitation of the present case study was that there were no physiological measurements made on the subject during the last 4 weeks before the Olympic trials. The primary reason for this was that the subject was concerned about the risk of injury occurring so close to a major national competition. Considering that the training paradigm of the subject did not change considerably during the last 4 weeks before the Olympic trials, it is thought that the wrestling-specific fitness parameters measured would also have remained constant. In the case study of Widerman and Hagan (21), their last measurement was 3 days before the AAU tournament and their results revealed that despite a loss of lean and fat tissue (8% of body weight), maximal aerobic power (67 ml·kg21·min21) and muscular strength were maintained in the FS wrestler relative to results collected at 31 and 53 days before. Results of this case study revealed that in the 7 months before a major event, the subject displayed a high level of wrestling-specific fitness for muscular strength, anaerobic power and capacity, and aerobic conditioning despite a small decrement (1 kg) in FFM. The subject went on to place third at the 2000 Olympic freestyle wrestling trials. To put into context the elite nature of U.S. FS wrestling, the eventual winner of the 69-kg weight class at the Olympic trials went on to receive a bronze medal at the 2000 Olympic Games held in Sydney, Australia. It can be concluded from

this investigation that despite changes in FS wrestling match duration, testing technologies, and the fact that approximately 20 years has elapsed since the last case study of an elite FS wrestler who was considerably younger (12 years), little has changed with respect to physiological adaptations that occur as a result of sport-specific training in an older (i.e., 33 years) elite FS wrestler (average age: 2000 Olympic FS wrestlers was 28.4 6 1.5 years). In addition, despite a small loss of FFM the subject was able to maintain muscular strength and aerobic fitness while at the same time enhancing anaerobic capacity and power capabilities throughout the investigation.

Practical Applications Results of this physiological profile on an older, elite FS wrestler demonstrated that in the 7 months before major competition, he displayed a high level of wrestling-specific fitness for muscular strength, anaerobic power and capacity, and aerobic conditioning despite a small decrement (1 kg) in FFM. These results corroborate findings from a previous case study conducted on a much younger FS wrestler (21). It is hoped that this physiological profile may be used as a supplemental descriptive guide for other elite FS wrestlers, coaches, and sport scientists as they prepare for both major national and international competition. Specifically, the testing schedule and types of measurements used in the present investigation may serve as a benchmark for others who desire to quantify physiological adaptations that may or may not occur over a specified training period. However, given the nature of the present investigation (i.e., case study), comparison of results for training purposes with other elite FS wrestlers should be made with caution.

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Address correspondence to Dr. Alan C. Utter, utterac@ appstate.edu.