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INSTITUTO NEUQUINO DEL PROFESORADO EN INGLÉS Fundación "Cristina Gallo de Morales" PROFESORADO EN INGLÉS – TRADUCTORADO EN INGLÉS
PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY I
Curso: Primer Año Profesora Titular: Candela Celli Profesora Ayudante: Laura Estévez Ciclo lectivo: 2020 Unidad 1
I.N.P.I. Phonetics and Phonology I
Introduction
The Speech Mechanism ★ Lungs: they are situated in the rib cage of the thorax. They are made of muscles and tissues. Their function is to provide the air for the production of sounds, as they are the main source of energy. They can contract and expand. ★ Larynx: it is a casing, formed of cartilage and muscle, situated in the upper part of the trachea. It is the first valve where the air passes through. The prominent forward position is the ‘Adam’s apple’ found in men. ★ Vocal folds: they are located on the top of the larynx. They are made of ligament and elastic tissue. Their function is to give voice (or not) to the sound, and to change its quality. ★ Glottis: it is the space between the vocal folds. Resonators ★ Oral Cavity: it is the inside part of what we know as ‘the mouth’. It is made of cartilage, it contains most of the articulators and produces oral sounds. It is the most important resonator, due to the great mobility of its organs and consequent changes of size and shape. ★ Nasal Cavity: it is the inside part of what we know as ‘the nose’. It extends from the pharynx to the nostrils, and it is separated from the oral cavity by the palate. The entrance to the nasal cavity is controlled by the velum or soft palate.
2
I.N.P.I. Phonetics and Phonology I
★ Pharynx: it is the passage situated at the top of the larynx, communicating with the oral and nasal cavities. Its front wall is formed by the root of the tongue. Active Articulators ★ Tongue: it is located in the oral cavity and it is a muscle that can move backwards and forwards and up and down. It is divided into 6 parts: tip, blade, front, centre, back and root. ★ Soft Palate/Velum: it is the movable part of the palate and it is situated at the very back of it, next to the pharynx. It is raised to let the air escape through the oral cavity and lowered to let it escape through the nasal cavity. ★ Lips: they are in front of the teeth and they are made of muscle. They take different shapes and positions to make the last modification to the air before it finishes its passage through the oral cavity. Passive Articulators ★ Alveolar Ridge and Hard Palate: they are situated between the nasal and oral cavities, made of bone, cartilage and tissue. The alveolar ridge is the prominence just behind the upper teeth and the hard palate is the unmovable part at the back of it. ★ Teeth: they are located along the jaw. They are bones and are used to interfere with or stop the airflow with the help of the tongue or the lower lip in order to produce certain consonants. 3
I.N.P.I. Phonetics and Phonology I
The Sounds of English As you can see, the phonemic chart has three main sections. The vowels are shown in the upper half, monophthongs on the left, and diphthongs on the right. The colon next to five of the vowel symbols indicates length. The consonants are shown in the lower half. To facilitate the learning of the phonemes of standard English, we need to know • how each sound is produced within the vocal tract (referred to as manner of articulation); • where in the vocal tract each sound is produced (referred to as place of articulation).
HOW? Manner of Articulation
WHERE? Place of Articulation
The distinguishing quality of each vowel There is no obstruction to the escape of is produced by the shape and size of the air through the mouth, and they are all resonant space in the mouth. This is voiced, i.e. the vocal cords vibrate in the controlled by the position and shape of air flow. the tongue, lips and jaw.
4
I.N.P.I. Phonetics and Phonology I
Like in the case of monophthongs, the As in the case of monophthongs, there is distinguishing quality of diphthongs is no obstruction to the escape of air produced by the tongue, lips and jaw. through the mouth, and they are all The difference is that there is one mouth voiced, i.e. the vocal cords vibrate in the posture at the beginning of the vowel air flow. sound, and another at the end. The resulting glide between these two positions
gives the diphthong its
characteristic ‘two-sound’ quality. There are restrictions to the air flow Restrictions to the air flow can be made made at one of the points of contact in various ways, each giving a different between the various speech organs such characteristic sound. Restrictions can be as the tongue, teeth, lips, palate, etc. All produced by friction applied to the air consonants
involve
some
sort
of flow, or by a momentary blocking of the
restriction to the air flow except /w/ and air flow followed by a sudden release, or
/j/.
by diverting the air flow through the nose. The use of voicing and devoicing also characterizes consonant sounds.
Monophthongs: Vowel sounds In the production of vowel sounds, the vocal tract is open so that there is no obstruction to the air flow escaping over the tongue. The characteristic sound of a vowel depends on the shape and size of the resonant space in the mouth. This is determined by: • the horizontal tongue position (front–center–back); • the vertical tongue position (high–mid–low); • the lip position (rounded–neutral–spread). And there is a fourth characteristic of vowels which is not dependent on tongue or lip position: • the typical length or duration of the vowel (long–short) The vowel chart is used as a visual aid for understanding the quality of the vowel system in a language. It is based on the cardinal vowel diagram, devised by Daniel Jones. These cardinal vowels do not exist in any language in particular; they are abstractions which 5
I.N.P.I. Phonetics and Phonology I
serve as a reference point to describe and compare the vowels in a language, and also across languages. The vertical axis of the chart indicates the degree of opening of the jaw and its connection with the raising or lowering of the tongue. The horizontal axis shows the part of the tongue that is raised the most and forms the narrowest stricture in the oral tract.
Front
Central
Back Close
Mid-close
Mid-open Open
Front: /iː/ /ɪ/ /e/ /æ/ Central: /ə/ /ɜː/ /ʌ/ Back: /uː/ /ʊ/ /ɔː/ /ɒ/ /ɑː/
6
I.N.P.I. Phonetics and Phonology I
Description: Pure Front Vowel. Long. The front of the tongue is raised to a height slightly below and behind the close front position; the lips are spread; the tongue is tense, with the side rims making a firm contact with the upper molars. Distribution Initial
Medial
east
peel
Final see
Spelling: Most Common
Less Common
Exceptions
three, cheese, leek,
and aesthetic,
people
season, leap, seat,
anaemia, phoenix
7
I.N.P.I. Phonetics and Phonology I
be, these, complete
piece, siege and seize, receive, key machine, prestige / iː /
/ ʃiːp /
eel
mean
grief
each
tea
thief
east
eel
eve
ease
keep
people
heap
feed
heal, heel, he'll
heat
weed
meat, meet, mete
heave
free
peal, peel
leave
tree
knead, need
clean
knee
leak, leek
seat
three
steal, steel
neat
knee
weak, week
seal
bee, B, be
flea, flee
breathe
glee
key, quay
yeast
chief
The short variation of this sound, /i/, is called ‘neutral i’ and can be found in word-final position, in unaccented syllables and in the weak forms of certain function words: easy
release
greedy
needy
believe
speedy
delete
repeat
greasy
defeat
receipt
copy
relief
retrieve
Mary
serene
breezy
really
reveal
queasy
semicircle
8
I.N.P.I. Phonetics and Phonology I
In a café: ‘It’s cheaper to eat at Marguerite’s’ CHRISTINA: What would you like to eat, 1 …………………………….. ? The cheese sandwiches are the cheapest. PETER: Er … mmm … oh, a 2 …………………………. sandwich, please, Christina. CHRISTINA: Cheese … mmm … Janine? Would you like a 3 ……………………………………… sandwich or a cheese sandwich? JANINE: A cheese sandwich, 4 ……………………………………. PETER: What about you, Christina? Would you like cheese or 5 ……………………………………….? WAITRESS: Are you all ready to order? What would you like to 6 …………………………………………? CHRISTINA: Er, we’ll have one beef sandwich, two cheese sandwiches and, mmm, 7 ………………………………… for me. JANINE: Tea for 8 …………………………………….. too, please. PETER: Yes, make that three 9 ……………………………………., please. WAITRESS: (writing down the order) One beef sandwich, two cheese sandwiches and 10 ………………………….. teas.
9
I.N.P.I. Phonetics and Phonology I
Description: Pure Front Vowel. Short. The part of the tongue slightly nearer the centre is raised to just above the half close position (not as high as in /i:/) . The lips are spread loosely, and the tongue is more relaxed. The sides of the tongue may just touch the upper molars. 10
I.N.P.I. Phonetics and Phonology I
Distribution Initial
Medial
ill
Final
since
Spelling: Most Common
Less Common
Exceptions
BVP ill, since
women, pretty
village, character,
singing, playing
rhythm, mystery,
spinach
plural and past:
sympathy
women
churches, started
village, certificate busy, minute build, circuit sieve
Attention! ▪
This sound can be stressed (e.g. sit) or unstressed (e.g. sitting). The following weak, and extremely frequent words, contain this sound: in, is, it, its, it’s, if, this, with, his, him, etc.
/ɪ/
/ ʃɪp /
silly
frilly
difficulty
kissing
city
Mickey
remit
mischief
pretty
whinny
mimicry
kicking
witty
dizzy
image
relinquish
Billy
filly
village
vividly
busy
giddy
simile
biscuit
sixty
fizzy
filthy
women
fifty
tricky
illicit
dismiss
hilly
pity
frigid
thinking
chilly
skinny
willing
finish 11
I.N.P.I. Phonetics and Phonology I
Three interesting films (A 16) BILL: Good evening, Mrs Lee. GINA: Is ………………………….. in? BILL: Is he coming to the ……………………….., Mrs Lee? It’s the Children’s Film ………………………. . MRS LEE: Kim’s ………………………. BILL: Here he is! GINA: Hi, Kim! KIM: Hi, Gina! Hi, Bill! BILL: Kim, we’ve got these three free ……………………….. to see three …………………………………………… films for …………………………….! MRS LEE: Listen, Kim … KIM: Is it ………………………………….. ? GINA: We think it is. First there’s a short …………………….. about gorillas and chimpanzees in Africa BILL: … then the next film is about the ……………….. best Olympic ……………………………………………… competitions, and then … GINA: … then it’s the ……………………….. film – The ……………………………………………. of English Cricket. KIM: ……………………………….! BILL: It’s a …………………………………………… film. MRS LEE: If you’re ill, Kim … GINA: It would be a ………………………………. to miss it. MRS LEE: Now listen, you ……………………………. … BILL: And it begins in fifty minutes. MRS LEE: KIM! KIM: Quick! Or we’ll miss the …………………………………………….. of the gorilla film!
12
I.N.P.I. Phonetics and Phonology I
Description: Pure Front Vowel. Short. The front of the tongue is between the half-open and half–close position. Lips are loosely spread. The tongue is tenser than for /ɪ/, and the sides of the tongue may touch the upper molars. 13
I.N.P.I. Phonetics and Phonology I
Distribution Initial
Medial
end
said
Final
Spelling: Most Common
Less Common
Exceptions
BVP bed, set, went
dead, head
ate, many, any
jeopardize, Leonard bury says, said, against build, circuit friend
/e/
/ pen /
leisure
tell
death
lead (metal),
heavy
egg
French
tread
led
select
end
wren
thread
guessed,
seventy
else
jest
dread
guess
jealousy
edge
sell, cell
health
beggar
leopard
hem
felt
wealth
Leicester
measure
hen
shed
friend
Refuse
treasure
men
yet
said
tentative
leisure
ten
head
says
excessive
bed
breast
bread, bred
imperil
leg
breath
leant, lent
adventure
send
spread
scent, sent,
tempestuous
mend
dead
cent
recollect
14
I.N.P.I. Phonetics and Phonology I
Read the following dialogue and try to fill in the gaps with the expressions below. First, transcribe them! ❖ Can I get you a drink, Adele? ❖ Is that better? ❖ Was it expensive? ❖ Are you listening to the Red Hot Chilly Peppers? ❖ How did you spend your holiday, Adele? ❖ Are you a friend of Emma’s? ❖ Have you met my friend Adele yet, Kevin? Friends ADELE: Hi, Emma! Hi, Ben! Hello, Emily! Hello! Eddie! Hi, everybody! EVERYBODY EXCEPT KEVIN: Hi, Adele! EMILY: Nice to see you again, Adele. Kevin, this is Adele. Adele, this is Kevin. ADELE: Hi, Kevin. 1 ……………………………………………………………………………………..…..? It’s terribly loud. KEVIN: Yes…. ( turns the music down) 2 ……………………………………………..? ( Adele nods her head) 3 …………………………………………………………………………? ADELE: Yes. KEVIN: Emma said she had a friend called Adele. EDDIE: Help yourself to Mexican food, Adele. It’s on the kitchen bench. EMILY: And there's French bread on the shelf. BEN: 4 ……………………………………………………………………………………? ADELE: Yes, thanks, Ben. Some lemonade with a bit of ice in it. EMMA: 5 …………………………………………………………………….? KEVIN: Yes. I've just met her. She's very friendly. BEN: 6 ……………………………………………………………………………? ADELE: I went to South America with my best friend Kerrie. EVERYBODY: Well! EMMA: We're all jealous EDDIE: 7 …………………………………………………………………………………..? ADELE: Not very. But I spent everything. I haven't any money left. 15
I.N.P.I. Phonetics and Phonology I
Description: Pure Front Vowel. Short. The front of the tongue is raised to just below the half-open position. Lips are neutrally open. 16
I.N.P.I. Phonetics and Phonology I
Distribution Initial
Medial at
Final
fat
Spelling: Most Common
Exceptions
Attention!
BVP cat, Brad, fat
reveille
Letters or are
plaid, plait
never / æ/
timbre
guarantee Attention! You need to lower your jaw and spread your lips. Smile! /æ/
/ kæt /
add
dam, damn
rat
damage
ant
gap
mass
exact
ass
patch
trap
angle
axe
tank
flat
access
apt
tack
lamb
canteen
hat
rag
sag
a contact
hand ham
lad
stamp
madman
hag
sank
clap
calamity
back
sad
hang
to extract
black
mad
cabbage
an impact
banned, band
bad
savage
canal
cap
glad
ravage
scandal
catch
wax
marriage
managerial
fan
match
carriage
fact
man
average
17
I.N.P.I. Phonetics and Phonology I
Aaron’s recorded messages Read the words below, pay attention to the target sound and look them up in the dictionary. Then listen and complete the dialogue. Allen
salad
cancelled anchovy
habit
animals Alligator
travel
Africa
Janet
antelope
absent Annabelle
sandwich
contracts
Anthony
passengers
advertising
1. Aaron works at the A jax Travel Agency. 2. He’s on holiday in …………………………………………………. . 3. His boss is Mrs. ……………………………………………………… . 4. Aaron left an ………………………………… and …………………………………………………………on his desk. 5. He ……..…………… to contact Anthony about the ……………….. of ……………………………….. he …………………….. on ……………………………. . 6. Aaron has a …………………….. of being ………………………………… from work. 7. Aaron booked a …………………………………….. to San ………………………………………. with three …………………………… : an anteater, an ……………………………………….. , and an ……………………………… 8. The computer has ………………………………………. and Aaron hadn't done the ……………………… up for the …………………………………………. programmes. Mrs. Allen is very ……………………………………. . 9. The best advertising …………………………………………. have been ………………………………….. because of Aaron's bad ………………………………………. . 10. Aaron doesn’t ………………………… to come …………………… to the …………………………….. agency because he's been …………………………………. .
18
I.N.P.I. Phonetics and Phonology I
Description: Pure central vowel. The centre of the tongue is raised to just above the fully open position. Lips are neutrally open. 19
I.N.P.I. Phonetics and Phonology I
Distribution Initial
Medial
uncle
Final
truck
Spelling: Most Common
Less Common
Exceptions
BVP up, fun, sun, oven, worry
blood, flood
gun
country, young,
does, doesn’t
enough, tough
Attention! You need to lower your jaw and avoid smiling when you produce this sound. /ʌ/
/ sʌn /
up
sunk
tough
suffocate
uncle
grunt
rough
sultry
ugly
gruff
enough
husband
much
snuff
couple
subsequent
such
rub
trouble
customer
tum
bunch
hiccough
subsidy
run
munch
does
cucumber
jump
lunch
blood
plunder
sudden
trust
flood
disgusting
blunt
jungle
bungalow
thunder
luck
snug
construct
conductor
just
snub
country
rubber
cluck
duck
budgerigar
pronunciation
shunt
touch
hunger
troublesome 20
I.N.P.I. Phonetics and Phonology I
cupboard
stomach
frontier
London
abduction
come
done
Monday
mustard
comfort
some, sum
month
structure
company
one, won
govern
reluctant
comfortable
once
oven
love
comrade
monk
worry
glove
money
monkey
dozen
dove
honey
none, nun
nothing
above
onion
sponge
colour
other
wonder
cover
brother
tongue
among
mother
front
compass
She doesn't love him JASMINE : Honey why are you so sad? (Duncan says ……………………………………….. ) JASMINE: ………………………………… , why are you so unhappy? I don't understand. DUNCANY: You don't …………………………… me Jasmine. JASMINE: But Duncan, I love you very ………………………………….! DUNCANT: That’s …………………………….., Jasmine. You …………………………. my ………………………………… JASMINE: Justin? DUNCAN: No, his ………………………………….. JASMINE: Dudley? DUNCAN: No. Stop being …………………………………., Jasmine. Not that ……………………….. The …………………………….. brother. Hunter. You think he´s ……………………………….. and I’m ………………………………………………………… . JASMINE: …………………………….! That's ………………………………….. ………………………………….. . DUNCAN: And Hunter loves you too. JASMINE: No he doesn’t DUNCAN: Yes, he ………………………………...
21
I.N.P.I. Phonetics and Phonology I
JASMINE: Duncan, ………………….. …………………………… last ……………………………….. I had lunch with Hunter. You mustn’t ……………………………… . I like your ……………………………………. much better than Hunter’s. Hunter’s …. DUNCAN: Oh, just …………………………… up, Jasmine! JASMINE: But honey, I think you’re ………………………………………………. . DUNCAN: Oh, shut up, Jasmine. JASMINE : Now that's ………………………………………! You're just jealous, Duncan. Y ou shut up!
22
I.N.P.I. Phonetics and Phonology I
Description: Pure back vowel. Long. The tongue, between the centre and the back is in the fully open position. Lips are neutrally open. Distribution Initial aunt
Medial chance
Final spa 23
I.N.P.I. Phonetics and Phonology I
Spelling: Most Common
Less Common
Exceptions
Most hard, bar
heart, hearth
reservoir, memoir
Some
+ nasal + clerk, Derby
repertoire
consonant answer, chance laugh, aunt Some
+
voiceless calm, palm, half
fricative past, after
Attention! Many words containing /ɑː/ share the same or similar spelling. They are words where orthographic a occurs before a nasal, e.g. France, or a fricative, e.g. basket, class. Here you have a list of the commonest BATH words: Pre-fricative af
after, craft, staff
alf/ alve
calf, halve
ask
basket
asp
grasp
ass
grass, glass (but ass, classical, classify, mass / æ /)
ast
fast, castle (but –astic is usually / æ /, e.g. plastic, fantastic)
ath
path, rather (but maths with / æ /)
Pre-nasal an
banana
am
example, (but ample, exam / æ /)
ance
advance, glance (but romance, finance, cancel, cancer / æ /)
and
command, demand, (but we use / æ / in single syllable words)
ans
answer
ant
grant, chant, advantage, can’t
❖ Note that some BATH words take /ɑː/ in British English and /æ/ in American English. (e.g. class, answer, grass, pass, laugh, etc.) 24
I.N.P.I. Phonetics and Phonology I
/ ɑː /
/ bɑːθ /
arms, alms
psalm
mark, marque
balm, harm
art
ask
charged
mask, masque
arch
last
dark
past, passed
charm
fast
barn
clasp
starve
pass
scarred
grass
hard
glass
martyr
draught, draft
star
laugh
far
clerk
car
papa
bar
heart, hart
sergeant
hearth
palm
Darby
calm
marmalade
drama
retard
farthing
panorama
commander
rhubarb :
bargain
remark
parson
disaster
department
laughter
alas
carpet
draughtsman
At a party (A 49) Listen to the dialogue paying attention to the target sound. Then, read the dialogue and fill the gaps with the correct adjective from the box. marvelous
attractive
fabulous
fantastic
smart
(Margaret and Alana are at the bar. People are laughing in the garden.) ALANA: What a ……………………………………… party this is! I’m having so much fun, Margaret. MARGARET: Where’s your glass, Alana? ALANA: Here you are. Thanks. That’s enough.
25
I.N.P.I. Phonetics and Phonology I
MARTIN: Alana! Margaret! Come into the garden. Tara Darling and Marcus Marsh are dancing on the grass. MARGARET: In the dark? MARTIN: They are dancing under the stars. ALANA: 2 …………………………………………..! And Bart Jackson is playing his guitar. MARCARET: Just look at Tara! She can’t dance but she looks very 3 …………………………………….. . MARTIN: Look at Markus. What a 4 …………………………………………………… dancer! ALANA: What an 5 …………………………………………………….. couple they are! Let’s take a photograph of them.
26
I.N.P.I. Phonetics and Phonology I
Description: Pure back vowel. Short. The back of the tongue is in the fully open position. Lips are lightly rounded. 27
I.N.P.I. Phonetics and Phonology I
Distribution Initial
Medial
off
Final
Boss
Spelling: Most Common
Less Common
Exceptions
BVP song, dog
after because, laurel,
All sock, clock
wallet, quality, quantity, sausage, cauliflower
what
cough,
quarrel, yatch /ɒ/
/ klɒk /
ox
soften
squabble
constant
on
often
watch
aquatic
hog
moss
won
contrary
hot
god
waddle
conference
top
box
squat
promise
chop
sock
quaff
proverb
clock
shot
hollow
doctor
gone
wrong
olive
probable
dock
knob
wander
obstacle
shone
hovel
watchful
obstinate
novel
cock
wallow
commodity
rot
snob
squander
mock
wash
squalid
grovel
what
quantity
soft
squash
quality 28
I.N.P.I. Phonetics and Phonology I
TV Advertisement on “ONWASH” VOICE A: What's wrong with you, Mrs Bloggs? MRS BLOGGS: What's wrong with me? I want a holiday from this 1 ………………………….. job of washing socks! VOICE B: Buy a bottle of “Onwash”, Mrs Bloggs! VOICE C: “Onwash” is so 2 ………………………….. and 3 …………………………….. VOICE D: You don't want lots of 4 ……………………………………….. water with “Onwash”. VOICE A: lt's not a 5 ………………………….. job with “Onwash”. VOICE B: Use “Onwash” often. VOICE C: You won’t be sorry when you’ve got “Onwash”. VOICE D: Everybody wants “Onwash”. EVERYBODY: “Onwash” is so 6 ……………………………………………..!
29
I.N.P.I. Phonetics and Phonology I
Description: Pure back vowel. Long. The back of the tongue is raised to between the half open and half close positions. Lips are loosely rounded. 30
I.N.P.I. Phonetics and Phonology I
Distribution Medial taught
Initial or
Final law
Spelling: Most Common
Less Common
Exceptions
All saw
+ < l > tall, talk
broad
Most war,
after war, water
lord, short, fork
quarter
Most board
floor, door
sure, pure
Most cause, fault, + C bought, daughter
fought
broad
/ ɔː / / bɔːl / more order cord port law
/ ɑː / cart park darn star ark barn tart martyr bark hearty
saw pause bought thought caught, / ɔː / caught , court pork dawn store auk born taught, tort mortal baulk haughty
hall always water war /ʌ/ nut cut fudge but ton, tun bun done son, sun one, won buck flood
/ ɔː / nought, naught caught forge bought torn born, borne dawn sawn worn baulk flawed 31
I.N.P.I. Phonetics and Phonology I
Sports report from Radio Station 4 ANNOUNCER: This morning the Roarers football team arrived back from York. Laura Short is our sports reporter, and she was at the airport. LAURA SHORT: Good morning, listeners. This is Laura Short. All the footballers are walking towards me. Here’s George Ball, the goalkeeper. Good morning, George. GEORGE BALL: Good morning. Are you a reporter? LAURA SHORT: Yes, George. I’m Laura Short from Radio Station 4. Tell us about the football match with York. GEORGE BALL: Well, it was awful. We lost. And the score was forty-four, four. But it wasn’t my fault, Laura. LAURA SHORT: Whose fault was it, George? GEORGE BALL: The forwards. LAURA SHORT: The forwards? GEORGE BALL: Yes. The forwards. They were always falling over or losing the ball!
32
I.N.P.I. Phonetics and Phonology I
Description: Pure back vowel. Short. The part of the tongue just behind the centre is raised, just above the half open position. The lips are rounded, but loosely so. The tongue is relatively relaxed. Distribution Initial Oops (rare)
Medial good
Final 33
I.N.P.I. Phonetics and Phonology I
Spelling: Most Common
Less Common
Exceptions
Some put, pull,
could, should
Worsted, Worsester
cushion
w olf, woman
Most book, cook Some good, wool /ʊ/
/ wʊl /
put
crook
wood, would
push
shook
good
pull
nook
soot
full
rook
foot
bull
brook
wool
look
cook
could
hook
book
should
took
hood
cuckoo
butcher
woolen
bullet
mistook
impudent
worsted
porcupine
gooseberry
foothold
spoonful
manhood
Worcester
fulfil
34
I.N.P.I. Phonetics and Phonology I
A lost book Mr. Cook: Could you tell me where you’ve ………………….. my ……………………….., Brownmen? Mrs. Cook: Isn’t it on the ……………………………? Mr. Cook: No. The bookshelf is full of your ………………………………. books. Mrs. Cook: Then you should ………………………………….. in the bedroom, …………………………… you? Mr. Cook: I’ve looked. You …………………….. that book and put it somewhere, didn’t you? Mrs. Cook: The living-room? Mr. Cook: No. I’ve looked. I’m going to ………………………….. all my books in a box and lock it! Mrs. Cook: Look, John! It’s on the floor next to your foot. Mr. Cook: Ah! Good!
35
I.N.P.I. Phonetics and Phonology I
Description: Pure back vowel. Long. The back of the tongue is raised just below the close position. Lips are rounded. The tongue is tense.
36
I.N.P.I. Phonetics and Phonology I
Distribution Initial
Medial
ooze
Final
food
grew
Spelling: Most Common
Less Common
Exceptions
Most crew
lose, do
beauty
Many spoon,
group, through
loose
fruit, cruise
Many Susan, music true, blue
/ uː / / buːt / shoot hoop loop hoof cool tool tooth spoon boot groove food root, route soon mood
moon stool goose proof fool brute rule truth rude screw grew strew threw, through flew, flu,
blew, blue true shoe move lose loose prove juice June fruit soup
37
I.N.P.I. Phonetics and Phonology I
/ juː / Tune Fume Tube Huge Nude mute spume cute
mule tutor cupid mew feud spew pew dew, due
stew few new, knew, newt cue, queue, Kew
The two rudest students in the school MISS LUKE: Good afternoon girls. GIRLS: Good afternoon, Miss Luke. MISS LUKE: This afternoon we're going to learn how to cook soup. Turn on your computers and look at unit twenty-two. LUCY: Excuse me, Miss Luke. MISS LUKE: Yes, Lucy? LUCY: There's some chewing gum on your shoe. MISS LUKE: Who threw their chewing gum on the floor? Was it you, Lucy? LUCY: No, Miss Luke. It was Susan. MISS LUKE: Who? LUCY: Susan Duke. SUSAN: It wasn't me, stupid. It was Julie. JULIE: It was you! SUSAN: lt wasn't me! My mouth's full of chewing gum. Look, Miss Luke! JULIE: Stop pulling my hair, Susan. It was you! SUSAN: YOU! JULIE: YOU! MISS LUKE: Excuse me! lf you two continue with this rudeness, you can stay after school instead of going to the pool.
38
I.N.P.I. Phonetics and Phonology I
Description: Pure central vowel. Long. The centre of the tongue is between the half open and half close position. Lips are relaxed, and neutrally spread. Distribution Initial earth
Medial word
Final stir 39
I.N.P.I. Phonetics and Phonology I
Spelling: Most Common
Less Common
Exceptions
All stressed word final
+ word,
Colonel, milieu, bleu
her, fir
world, work
All +C skirt, journey, courtesy girl, alert
earth, early, heard
Attention! ❖ There’s generally involved an involved in the spelling, but you should do NOTHING to produce this sound. ‘Botox effect’: don’t spread your lips, don’t round your lips, don’t lower your jaw, and don’t raise your jaw! / ɜː / / pɜːl /
fern
irk
urge
worse
stern
shirt
burn
worst
jerk
flirt
murk
earn, urn
earth
skirt
curds
heard, herd
earl
first
burst
tern, turn
pearl, purl
third
spur
fir, fur
learn
mirth
purr
word, whirred
yearn
stir
work
world, whirled
search
stirred
worm
colonel, kernel
hearse
firm
worth
40
I.N.P.I. Phonetics and Phonology I
Indicate the stressed syllable in the following words. If it is necessary, look them up in the dictionary! worship
murmuring
prefer
worsening
turnip
merciful
occur
internal
surface
furnace
occurred
discursive
journey
squirming
occurring
murderer
perjury
refer
murdered
infernal
referred
earnest, Ernest
disturbing
preferring
impersonal The worst nurse SIR HERBERT: Nurse! COLONEL BURTON: Nurse! I’m thirsty! SIR HERBERT: Nurse! My head hurts! COLONEL BURTON: Nurse Sherman always wears such dirty shirts. SIR HERBERT: He never arrives at work early. COLONEL BURTON: He and …er…Nurse Turner weren’t at work on Thursday, were they? SIR HERBERT: No, they weren’t. COLONEL BURTON: Nurse Sherman is the worst nurse in the guard, isn’t he, Sir Herbert? SIR HERBERT: No, he isn’t, Colonel Burton. He’s the worst nurse in the world!
41
I.N.P.I. Phonetics and Phonology I
Description: Pure central vowel. Short. The centre of the tongue is between the half close and half open positions. Lips are relaxed and neutrally spread.
42
I.N.P.I. Phonetics and Phonology I
Distribution Initial about
Medial
Final
waiters
actor
Spelling: Most Common
Less Common
appear, about
easily
of, combine
but,
the, improvement
actor,
manner, theatre
culture colour popular generous
/ə/
/ ə ˈkæmərə /
he
rector
harder
among
ardour
after
matter
valour
wider
gather
candour
runner
sister
colour
sector
better
savour
captor
bitter
odour
tailor
actor
jealous
motor
factor
amaze
manor,
doctor
alive
manner
tenor
manner
porous
picture
pressure
culture
measure
vulture
mixture
treasure
texture
adventure
injure
furniture
leisure
generous credulous frivolous garrulous amorous valorous
43
I.N.P.I. Phonetics and Phonology I
future
pattered
soda
compare
seizure
staggered
Sofa
complain
delicate
withered
Rota
connect
separate (adj)
angered
quota
to contrast
illiterate
forward(s)
data
to concern
adequate
eastward(s)
visible
conclude
inanimate
backward(s)
commence
conceal
intimate (adj)
northward(s)
to combine
confuse
mattered
centre
commit
contain
gathered
scepter
commend
conserve
chequered
theatre
command
watered
lustre
compel
Attention! ❖ It’s the “Queen of English” because it’s the most frequent vowel by far! ❖ Most unstressed syllables take schwa. Barbara
44
Diphthongs
INPI Phonetics and Phonology I
There are seven diphthongs in English. Diphthongs are sounds which consist of a
movement or glide from one vowel to another. Perhaps the most important thing to remember about all the diphthongs is that the first part is much longer and stronger than the second part. Take /aɪ/ as an example. Most of this diphthong consists of the /a/ vowel, and only in about the last quarter of the diphthong does the glide to /ɪ/ begin. As the glide to /ɪ/ happens, the loudness of the sound decreases. As a result, the /ɪ/ part is shorter and quieter. The English diphthongs can be shown in the following diagram:
INPI Phonetics and Phonology I
/ ɪə eә / / ɪə eә / are called centring diphthongs because they all glide towards the /ә/ (schwa) vowel, as the symbols indicate. The starting point for / ɪə / is a little closer than / ɪ / in bit, bin. / eә / begins with the similar vowel sound as the / e / of g et, men. / eɪ aɪ ɔɪ / / eɪ aɪ ɔɪ / the three diphthongs that glide towards /ɪ/. / eɪ / begins with the same vowel sound as the /e/ of get, men. / aɪ / begins with an open vowel which is between front and back; it is quite similar to the / ʌ / in words like cut, bun. The starting point of / ɔɪ / is a little more open than /ɔ:/ in ought, born. The closing diphthongs have the characteristic that they all end with a glide towards a closer vowel. Because the second part of the diphthong is weak, they often do not reach a position that could be called close. The important thing is that a glide from a relatively more open towards a relatively closer vowel is produced. / əʊ aʊ / / əʊ aʊ / are the two diphthongs that end with a glide towards /ʊ/. So as the tongue moves closer to the roof of the mouth there is at the same time a rounding movement of the lips. This movement is not a large one, again because the second part of the diphthong is weak. The vowel position for the beginning of / əʊ / is the same as for the "schwa" vowel /ә/. The lips may be slightly rounded in anticipation of the glide towards /ʊ/, for which there is quite a noticeable lip-rounding. / aʊ / begins with a vowel similar to /ɑ:/ but a little more front. There is slight lip-rounding during the glide towards /ʊ/. Practice / ɪə / tear near fear clear dear , deer beer steer sneer jeer merely
cheer shear, sheer here, hear weir, we're mere cleared rear beard smear
year leer queer freer seer, sear, sere sphere serious weird
eerie
revere 2
INPI Phonetics and Phonology I
dreary lugubrious inferior queerly mysterious interfere India appear imperious delirious nuclear series experience Julius cereal, serial salubrious interior fearless endearing exterior bleary superior Don't put your beard in the beer, not even if it's near beer, which isn't real beer, and isn't dear. A series of mysterious crimes, some serious, appear to have been committed near here, I fear. It's clear that some will cheer and others will jeer when the peer speaks. Though his eyes are bleary and his voice is queer, he's really a superior person with much experience, gained through years and years of serious study, not merely of theory. We're near the end of the year. After her dreary ordeal she was tearful hut soon became cheerful. He spoke the speech from King Lear in a clear voice, and the audience cheered and cried "Hear, hear!' Steer clear of the pier, dear. Clear that rubbish out of here and don't put it anywhere near. / eә / air, heir, bare, bear share chair wear, where, ware blare lair tear (rend), tare scarce laird hair, hare mare, mayor care stair , stare there, their rare fair, fare pear, pair flair, flare scarce square careless repair various despairing airy unbearable impair scarecrow beware hairy scarcely questionnaire fairy Aquarius airplane compare aquarium commissionaire dairy hardware There, that's the square where the fair will be held. It'll be opened by the Mayor, who is already carefully preparing to do his share. It'll be a rare treat to see him enter on a mare, 3
INPI Phonetics and Phonology I
wearing his chain of office. That's more than you'd dare to do, I'm prepared to swear. You'd be scared of riding on a mare to the fair. The heir took care to put out a chair for his uncle, who scarcely thanked him. Would you dare lo go to the lair of that hairy bear? It's not fair to stare at Claire on the stairs, nor at the dress she wears, for she's shy and doesn't care to be stared at. You should wear a pair of trousers that will put up with wear and tear. Mr. Clare has a flair for rare antiques. / eɪ / age aim say ache aid slay ape frail pay fate paid bray late raid bate, bait same laid tale, tail name sable waste, waist race mange nay, neigh frame haste hail, hale make taste mane, main came strange chaste, chased snake cradle male, mail grape eight gate, gait wave freight vane, vain, vein shame hay pray, prey shave tray favour abrade to co-ordinate afraid cavalcade earthquake lazy major to animate amaze available contemplate to estimate basis sleight to deliberate mitigate ancient to moderate populate arrange basin basement radiant declaim James hates people taking his name in vain. Eight grave grey apes were eating grapes without haste. The flavour of the grapes made the apes say : "Hey! We're glad we came to taste these grapes today.' The main game that apes play is that of chasing their neighbours and shaking their tails. In spite of his age, he has neither aches nor pains. Our maid Maisie makes mistakes but she never breaks plates, and isn't lazy. The other day Major Clay carne to stay with us, and Maisie thought he was her fiancé, for they have the same gait, Major Clay and the fiancé, Joe May, the baker's boy. So Maisie made 4
INPI Phonetics and Phonology I
straight for the Major and embraced him, to his amazement. When she saw her mistake, she hastened away, but the Major was gay for the test of the day. / aɪ / mild sigh flies kind height fry bind thigh I, eye mind, mined slight, sleight thyme, time wind sky rhyme high skies delight wild idle, idol bicycle while tie tricycle night, knight lie deny bright despite surprise flight syphon (or: siphon) advertise might, mite despise decline right, rite, write silence syren, siren try quite blind shy shiny signed cry recline find by, buy, bye sniper isle dye, die Ice in my nice wine? No, no ice. Ice in wine is not nice. Iced wine's a vice Fine wine is not nice with ice. I won't deny l like wine. I do like wine. I delight in the tight wine. The tight wine lit the right time. And the time, you know, is always right for wine. Whether it's five or nine or any other time, it's always time for wine for a civilized mind. Drink wine and learn lo rhyme nine and wine and rhyme and time. A rhyme in time saves nine, Drink, some fine Cyprus wine and praise the vine that grew the wine. Nine ripe wines in a line make time fly. Time flies anyhow. I might deny that time flies, but I won't, tonight. Time flies but I don't. Why the time flies neither mice nor men know. Why doesn't ice fly and time melt? I don't know why, so pass the wine and try to pass the time. Pour some time into my wine and I'll live to the nine hundred and ninety-nine before I die. / ɔɪ / oil foist loin moist soil spoil hoist joist choice join coil broil boil void foil quoit coin joint toil voice boy, buoy 5
INPI Phonetics and Phonology I
cloy coy toy annoy enjoy recoil ointment deploy despoil oily employ poison oyster rejoice moisture boisterous exploit (noun) hoity-toity exploit (verb) It’s a joy to watch the boy playing with his toys. That noisy boy has a voice that's most annoying. His only way of enjoying himself is to make a noise. What sort of a noise would a noisy, annoyed oyster make? The oily voice of the lawyer spoilt our enjoyment of the play. We must leave the choice to the fall of a coin. To avoid rheumatism, anoint your joints with an oily ointment. Plant those royal lilies in moist soil. Don't spoil the joint by boiling. The employer exploited his employees and foisted all sorts of toil on them. / aʊ / owl now mound town cow shout bow brow louse round found spouse crowd mouse loud sprout house proud how round doubt row sprout spout brown bounce spouse gown rouse scout drown plough, plow lout frown trout about resound trousers around thousand renowned aloud, allowed confound endowed mountain abound clowning fountain flounder scoundrel expound 6
INPI Phonetics and Phonology I
John Brown's been to town. Now, in town he found an owl, a towel, and a trowel. Don't scowl: he really did buy an owl, a stuffed owl, an elegant fowl. That stuffed brown owl will stand on his mantelpiece, with a stuffed brown mouse in its foul beak. Brown's dog Towser will growl when he sees that owl, and the baby'll howl. Towser's a sound dog, a bouncing hound who covers the ground by leaps and bounds. I haven't found out how much Brown paid for that owl, but the amount was doubtless large. Oh hello, Brown, how are you? And where's Towser? Ah, Towser? Down, Towser, down ! Brown, stop Towser! Towser's growling and tearing my trousers, Towser, you clown, get down! Go and tear your master's trousers, Brown's trousers. / əʊ / home moan goal tone glow foal hope show, shew bow nose, knows blow grow bone slow, sloe throw note know, no flow choke hold, holed crow rope fold, foaled told, tolled joke ghost cold Rome, roam though bold, bowled oak dough, doe hoe oaf groan comb boat soak so, sew, sow boast coal goat slopes oaks note mope boned own code shown/shewn Joan lobe hope tote ode, owed tope rode, road, rowed smoke owner coke soak soap node joke robe sewed, sowed potato borrow ogre tomato burrow photograph only barrow probate Roman marrow imposing sorrow sparrow coconut tomorrow narrow smoulder 7
INPI Phonetics and Phonology I
Don't you know, Rover's got no bone? What, no bone for Rover? Rover won't stay at home unless Rover's got a bone. Joe, go to Jones the butcher's and get á bone lest poor Rover groan and leave home. Phone? No, don't phone - go. If you go they'll show you bones galore, for they've oceans of bones below where it's cold. They've sold bones since Bonaparte died, so they know good bones from mouldy old bones. Take Rover with you, Joe. Rover too knows a good bone when he sees one. Buy him a bone that weighs half a stone.
Transcription Rules Vowel Sounds
Diphthongs
Plosives
★ Strong aspiration When /p, t, k/ are followed by a vowel sound or /l, r, w, j/, not preceded by /s/ in a stressed syllable: /pʰeɪs, tʰreɪn, kʰliːn/
Fricatives
Affricates
Nasals
Approximants
[ɫ] in syllable-final position: candle, chuckle, full, table, Will, people, settling
Consonant + Vowel sound linking: all consonants in word-final position followed by a vowel sound: tɒp ͜ əv ͜ aʊə hedz, ni:z ͜ ən ͜ aɪz Silent letters Some consonants are written but not pronounced. This is either because they were once pronounced (knock) or come from a foreign language (psychology). Initial position cz – czar kn – knock, knee, knight, knife gn – gnat, gnaw, gnome pn – pneumonia ps – psychology, psychiatry, pseudo pt – Ptolemy wr – write, wrong, wring, wrist wh – who, whom, whose, whole End position -mb – lamb, climb, thumb -ng – king, thing, song, wing -gm – paradigm, diaphragm -gn – sign, reign, foreign, resign (but signature, resignation) -mn – condemn, autumn, column -pt – receipt (except for reception) Other positions doubt muscle castle whistle isle viscount sword Norwich
Suffixes
-e suffix Sometimes the addition of the –e suffix to a noun to form a verb changes the quality both of the vowels sound and of the final –th: a bath /bɑːθ/ ; to bathe / beɪð/; a breath /breθ/; to breathe /brɪːð/ Punctuation and Other Aspects - No capital letters - No commas, semicolons, dashes, or stops. Use / and // for short and long pauses, respectively. - For new paragraphs, start a new line, using indentation. - Respect the position of each symbol as regards the line: ʃ tʃ ʒ j g - Make sure that similar symbols are drawn correctly in order to avoid confusion: ə ð ɔ ɒ ɑ - Check that you haven’t used letters like ‘c’, ‘A’, ‘B’, ‘o’, ‘y’ or ‘x’ - Check that you have transcribed all the words in their correct form (plurals, past, 3rd person singular)
References Gebhardt, F (A.A. 2010-2011). English Pronunciation. Facoltà di Lettere e Filosofia. Corsi di Laurea in Filosofia, Lettere, Storia Cruttenden, A., & Gimson, A. C. (2014). Gimson's Pronunciation of English (8th ed.). London: Routledge.
THE 37 ESSENTIAL WEAK-FORM WORDS
HECTOR ORTIZ LIRA •UNIVERSIDAD METROPOLITANA DE CIENCIAS DE LA EDUCACIÓN •UNIVERSIDAD DE SANTIAGO DE CHILE 2008
INTRODUCTION Weak forms are an essential feature of English pronunciation. Students who wish to acquire a high level of oral performance, as is the case of future teachers of English, must be aware of their existence, since failure to produce them will affect English rhythm quite considerably and even lead to misunderstanding. Spanish-speaking learners face a number of difficulties in this respect. On the one hand, weakening of the grammatical items which make up the weakform inventory in non-prominent contexts does not exist in Spanish. On the other hand, unless the weakened pronunciations are represented with a contracted form, i.e. by the use of apostrophes, (e.g. I could’ve helped if you’d asked me /aî k¨d \v «helpt îf jud `å…st mi/), English spelling does not provide learners with the information they need to make the correct choice. One final point concerns the varying type of information they find in books and courses. For instance, lists of weak-form words vary in length (e.g. as many as 48 in Gimson & Cruttenden 2001, 40 in Roach 2000, 35 in Kenworthy 1987, and 44 in García Lecumberri & Maidment 2000). This paper is divided in two parts. Part I intends to establish the main points concerning the topic. Part II provides a list of the essential items with examples in ordinary spelling and phonemic transcription with intonation marks. Since the use of weak and strong forms depends to a considerable extent on sentence accentuation, students are advised to read transcribed texts and mark utterances by making use of the so-called ‘tonetic-stress marks’, which indicate intonation. The analysis of minimal pairs such as /aî k\n `help/ and /aî kæn `help/ or /«w√n f\ `tu…/ and /«w√n fø… `tu…/ should help identify important differences in meaning; whereas /aî k\n `help/ and /«w√n f\ `tu…/ are the normal, usual patterns, /aî kæn `help/ may be understood as a contradicting remark –Contrary to what you may expect, I can be of help–, and /«w√n fø… `tu…/ is perceived as one, four, two. In sum, weak forms can only be taught and learned in connected speech. They are not a feature The 37 essential weak-form words. H. Ortiz Lira. UMCE, USACH. 2008. Page 1
of the word, but a feature of the utterance and as such should be taught from the very initial stages. Learners are advised to analyse the following examples and use the accompanying recording as practice material for listening and repetition.
PART I: GENERAL PRINCIPLES 1. There is a small group of about 35 to 40 very common structural words in English which are pronounced in mainly two different ways—a weak form and a strong form; some of these words have more than one weak form. In general, weak forms are much more common than strong forms; in fact, weak forms are the normal pronunciations and for this reason students should identify them and use them from the very early stages. The most complete and updated information concerning the pronunciation of weak-form words can be found in the two standard pronunciation dictionaries: Wells (2008) and Roach, Hartman & Setter (2006). Here users may find out about regular, occasional and fairly unusual forms. 2. A weak form usually contains a weak vowel –mainly /\/, sometimes the neutralized versions i and u– and, in some cases, no vowel, e.g. (1)
Come and kiss me. /«k√m \n k ` îs mi/
(2)
Bread and butter. /«bred n `b√t\/
3. In most contexts the use of weak forms is not optional, but compulsory. Failure to pronounce weak forms in appropriate contexts will result in a foreign accent, unnecessary (and therefore wrong) emphasis or contrast, excessive formality or even pomposity. 4. Weak-form words are structural or function words, i.e. adjectival words (including articles), some pronouns, conjunctions, prepositions, and a group of auxiliary verbs. 5. Students must learn when to use weak forms and when not to use them. The correct choice depends mainly on three factors, all of which are exemplified below, viz. (i) ACCENT: Is the weak-form word accented or unaccented? (ii) STRANDING: Is the weak-form word exposed as a result of a grammatical operation implying movement or deletion? (iii) PHONETIC ENVIRONMENT: Is the weak-form word followed by a vowel or a consonant? Does the weak-form word beginning with /h/ occur after a pause? The 37 essential weak-form words. H. Ortiz Lira. UMCE, USACH. 2008. Page 2
6. Accent, which is a feature of the utterance, affects all weak-form words: weak forms are never accented; strong forms may be either accented or unaccented. In examples (3) and (4), the accented weak-form words convey contrast: us v. them and are not v. am; in (5), the adverbial for instance occurring in medial position in the utterance forms an intonation group of its own, separating the auxiliary verb from the noun phrase; as a result, the auxiliary verb was has to bear an accent, e.g. (3) (4)
(5)
Is this for us or for them? /îz «∂îs f\r √s Æ ø… f\ ∂em/ ' ` A: You’re not certain, are you? /jø… «nÅt `sé…tn Æ `å… ju/ B: I am certain! /aî `æm sé…tn/ There was, for instance, the question of money. /∂\ `wÅz Æ f\r înst\ns Æ ∂\ «kwestß\n \v `m√ni/ ' (Cf. There was the question of money, for instance /∂\ w\z ∂\ «kwestß\n \v `m√ni, f\r înst\ns/).
7. The use of prepositions and auxiliary verbs in their weak or strong forms may depend on whether they are exposed or not as a result of a syntactic device. For instance, in order to form a wh-question such as that in (6), the word what, which is governed by of in the sequence of what, is moved to initial position in the utterance. Similarly, in (7) the speaker has decided to highlight the noun phrase a cold drink, which is governed by the preposition for, and is also moved to initial position. As a result of these syntactic movements the prepositions of and for are left exposed or stranded and are pronounced with the strong (though unaccented) form, e.g. (6) (7)
What’s it made of? (< It is made of what). /«wÅts ît meîd Åv/ ` A cold drink is what I’m looking for (< I’m looking for a cold drink). /\ «k\¨l `drîNk îz wÅt aîm l¨kîN fø…/
The same applies to auxiliary verbs. In examples (8) and (9), the grammatical operation does not involve movement to the right but omission of the main verb, because the speaker wants to avoid repetition, e.g. (8)
Dance? Æ Of course I can. / 'då…ns Æ \v `kø…s aî kæn/ (