Basic Electronics

I. Zherebtsov Basic ElectronicsI. Zherebtsov Basic Electronics The subject-matter of the book co­vers a wide range of material specific to electronics – from the basic prin­ciples underlying it to sophisticated devices employed in a multitude of applications. Among other things, there is a fairly detailed discussion of semiconductor materials and devices, electron tubes, photocells, optoelect­ronic devices, and integrated circuits. The text is liberally illustrated and includes a discussion of reliability and testing. The book has been conceived as an aid in the study of electronics by college students, those relying on self-education, and hobbyists. Docent Ivan P. Zherebtsov, Cand. (Pedagog. Sc.) taught electrical en­gineering and radio engineering at secondary educational establish­ ments since 1928, has been lecturing on these subjects at colleges since 1946. Is a leading Soviet authority in the field of telecommunications. Has penned over 40 books and booklets many of which have been translated into foreign languages or published outside the Soviet Union. The most important of them are Radio Engi­neering (five editions), Basic Electro­nics (four editions). Electric and Magnetic Circuits (two editions), An Introduction to UHF-SHT Radio En­gineering (three editions). Honorary member of the A. S. Popov Scientific and Technical Society on Radio, Electronics, and Communications. First published 1988 Revised from the 1985 Russian edition Translated from the Russian by Boris V. Kuznetsov Preface 9 Introduction 10 I-1 Electronics Defined 10 I-2 A Brief Historical Outline 10 I-3 Requirements for Electronic Components 13 I-4 Semiconductor Devices in Electronics 16 PART ONE. SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES Chapter 1 Electric Conduction in Semiconductors 18 1-l Electrons in Solids 18 1-2 Intrinsic Electron and Hole Conduction. Drift Current 20 1-3 Extrinsic Conduction 24 1-4 Carrier Diffusion in Semiconductors 26 Chapter 2 P-N and Metal-Semiconductor Junctions 28 2-1 A P-N Junction with No External Voltage Applied 28 2-2 The Forward-Biased P-N Junction 31 2-3 The Reverse-Biased P-N Junction 33 2-4 The Metal-Semiconductor Junction 34 Chapter 3 Semiconductor Diodes 35 3-1 The Current-Voltage Characteristic of the Semiconductor Diode 35 3-2 The Capacitance of a Semiconductor Diode 37 3-3 The Temperature Behaviour of Semiconductor Diodes 38 3-4 The Operation of the Diode at Load 39 3-5 Semiconductor Diodes as Rectifiers 41 3-6 Series and Parallel Connection of Diodes 45 3-7 The Pulsed Operation of Semiconductor Diodes 3-8 Basic Types of Semiconductor Diodes 48 Chapter 4 Bipolar Transistors 53 4-1 General Principles 53 4-2 Physical Processes in a Transistor 54 4-3 Amplification by a Transistor 59 4-4 The Basic Circuit Configurations of Transistors 4-5 Bias Supply and Temperature Compensation for Transistors 64 4-6 Transistors in Amplifiers and Oscillators 67 Chapter 5 Characteristics and Parameters of Bipolar Transistors 68 5-1 Characteristics of Transistors 68 5-2 Parameters and Equivalent Circuits of Transistors 73 Chapter 6 Dynamic Operation of Bipolar Transistors 80 6-1 Calculation of Dynamic Operation of Transistors 80 6-2 The Effect of Temperature on the Performance of Transistors 86 6-3 The Frequency Behaviour of Transistors 88 6-4 Transistors as Switches 90 6-5 Frequency Changing by Semiconductor Devices 91 6-6 Inherent Noise in Transistors 95 6-7 Basic Types of Bipolar Transistors 97 Chapter 7 Field-Effect Transistors and Thyristors 102 7-1 Field-Effect Transistors 102 7-2 Thyristors 109 Chapter 8 Miscellaneous Semiconductor Devices 8-1 The Tunnel Diode 113 8-2 Microwave Semiconductor Diodes 117 8-3 Avalanche Diodes and Gunn Diodes 119 8-4 Heterojunction Devices 121 8-5 The Unijunction Transistor 122 8-6 Semiconductor Resistors 122 Chapter 9 An Outline of Integrated Circuits 123 9-1 General 123 9-2 Film and Hybrid Integrated Circuits 125 9-3 Monolithic Integrated Circuits 127 9-4 Charge-Coupled Devices and Integrated Injection Logic (I2L) Chips 135 PART TWO. ELECTRON TUBES Chapter 10 Behaviour of Electrons in Electric and Mag­netic Fields 139 10-1 The Motion of Electrons in a Uniform Electric Field 139 10-2 The Motion of Electrons in a Nonuniform Electric Field 142 10-3 The Motion of Electrons in a Uniform Magnetic Field 143 Chapter 11 The Basic Structure and Operation of Electron Tubes 145 11-1 A General Outline and Classification of Electron Tubes 145 11-2 The Basic Structure and Operation of the Diode 146 11-3 The Basic Structure and Operation of the Triode 148 11-4 Electron Emission 149 11-5 The Parameters of Thermionic Cathodes 152 11-6 Cathodes 152 11-7 Directly and Indirectly Heated Cathodes 154 11-8 Anode and Grid Types for Vacuum Tubes 156 11-9 Vacuum in Vacuum Tubes. Tube Envelopes 158 11-10 Electrode Mounting and Electrode Leads 158 Chapter 12 Diodes 160 12-1 Physical Processes 160 12-2' The Three-Halves Power Law 162 12-3 The Current-Voltage Characteristic of a Vacuum Diode 12-4 The Parameters of the Vacuum Diode 163 12-5 Dynamic Operation of a Vacuum Diode. Rectification of Alternating Current 165 12-6 Diode Types 166 Chapter 13 Vacuum Triodes 167 13-1 Physical Processes 13-2 Current Division 170 13-3 The Virtual Voltage and the Three-Halves Power Law 171 13-4 Characteristics of the Vacuum Triode 172 13-5 The Operating Conditions, Absolute Maximum Ratings and Parameters of the Vacuum Triode 175 13-6 Grid Current 181 Chapter 14 The Vacuum Triode in Operation at Load 182 14-1 General 182 14-2 An Amplifier Stage Using a Vacuum Triode 183 14-3 Amplifier Stage Parameters 187 14-4 The Analytical Method and the Equivalent Circuits of an Amplifier Stage 189 14-5 Graphical Analysis of Triode Performance at Load 192 14-6 The Vacuum Triode as an Oscillator 195 14-7 The Interelectrode Capacitances of a Vacuum Triode 195 14-8 Common-Grid and Common-Anode Stages 198 14-9 Limitations of the Vacuum Triode 199 14-10 Basic Types of Receiving-Amplifying Vacuum Triodes Chapter 15 Tetrodes, Pentodes and Miscellaneous Tubes 199 15- 1 The Vacuum Tetrode 199 15-2 Secondary Electron Emission in the Vacuum Tetrode 202 15-3 The Pentode 203 15-4 Current Division in the Pentode 204 15-5 Connection of Tetrodes and Pentodes in Circuits 205 15-6 The Characteristics of Tetrodes and Pentodes 206 15-7 The Parameters of Tetrodes and Pentodes 208 15-8 The Interelectrode Capacitances of Tetrodes and Pentodes 208 15-9 The Beam Power Tetrode 210 15-10 The Characteristics and Parameters of the Beam Tetrode 211 15-11 The Dynamic Operation of Tetrodes and Pentodes 212 15-12 Variable-Mu Tubes 214 15-13 Basic Types of Tetrodes and Pentodes 215 15-14 Miscellaneous Tubes 215 Chapter 16 Cathode-Ray Tubes 217 16-1 General 217 16-2 The Electrostatic CRT 217 16-3 The Supply Circuits of the CRT 218 16-4 The Electron Gun of an Electrostatic CRT 16-5 Electrostatic Beam Deflection 222 16-6 Measurement and Visual Observation of Alternating Voltages with a Cathode-Ray Tube 223 16-7 Image Distortion in Electrostatic CRTs 225 16-8 The Magnetic CRTs 226 16-9 The Fluorescent Screen 229 16-10 Basic Types of CRTs for Oscilloscopes and TV 232 16-11 Shaped-Beam Character Display Tubes 233 Chapter 17 Gas-Discharge and Indicator Tubes 234 17-1 Gaseous Discharges 234 17-2 Forms of Gaseous Discharge 235 17-3 Glow Discharge 236 17-4 Voltage-Regulator Tubes 240 17-5 Circuits Using VR Tubes 242 17-6 Glow-Discharge Thyratrons 244 17-7 Character Display and Numerical Readout Devices 246 17-8 Miscellaneous Gas-Discharge Devices 249 Chapter 18 Tube Noise 250 18-1 Sources of Tube Noise 250 18-2 The Noise Performance of Vacuum Tubes 250 Chapter 19 Operation of Vacuum Tubes at Microwave Frequencies 252 19-1 The Effects of Interelectrode Capacitances and Lead Induc­tances 252 19-2 Electron-Inertia Effects 253 19-3 Electrostatically Induced Currents in the Circuits of Vacuum Tubes 254 19-4 The Input Resistance of and Power Dissipation in Tubes 257 19-5 Tubes in Pulse Operation 260 19-6 Microwave Vacuum Tubes 261 Chapter 20 Advanced Types of Microwave Tubes 20-1 General 263 20-2 The Drift-Tube Klystron 263 20-3 The Reflex Klystron 267 20-4 The Magnetron 270 20-5 Travelling-Wave and Backward-Wave Tubes 275 20-6 The Amplitron and the Carmatron 280 Chapter 21 Reliability and Testing of Electron Devices 281 21-1 Reliability and Testing of Semiconductor Devices 281 21- 2 Reliability and Testing of Tubes 283 PART THREE. PHOTOELECTRIC AND OPTOELECTRONIC DEVICES Chapter 22 Photoelectric Devices 286 22- 1 Photoelectric Emission 286 22-2 Phototubes 287 22-3 The Photomultiplier Tube 288 Chapter 23 Semiconductor Optoelectronic Devices 290 23-1 General 290 23-2 Bulk Photoconductors (Photoresistors) 23-3 Photodiodes 292 23-4 Semiconductor Photovoltaic Cells 23-5 Phototransistors 294 23-6 Photothyristors 295 23-7 Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs) 296 23-8 Optocouplers (Optoisolators) 298 Conclusion 301 Index 303